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1、Pragmatics Preview:uInvisible meaning (隐含意义)uContext (语境)uDeixis (指示语)uReference (指称)uAnaphora (照应)uPresupposition (预设)uSpeech acts (言语行为)uPoliteness (礼貌原则)Pragmatics：It refers to the study of“intended speaker meaning”.I.Invisible meaning 隐含意义In order for us to recognize the invisible meaning,the wr
2、iters must be able to depend on a lot of shared assumptions and expectations.Then,we use the meaning of the words,in combination,and the context in which they occur,and we try to arrived at what the writer of the sign intended his message to convey.II.Context 语境There are different kinds of context.O
3、ne kind is described as linguistic context,also known as co-text.More generally,we know how to interpret words on the basis of physical context.a)Co-textThe co-text of a word is the set of other words used in the same phrase or sentence.The surrounding co-text has a strong effect on what we think th
4、e word means.Bank1.I need to go to the bank to withdraw some cash.2.Its on the north bank of the Thames.3.The girls ran down the steep grassy bank.4.He has a bank of knowledge.a.the side of a river,canal,etc.and the land near it b.an organization that provides various financial servicesc.an amount o
5、f sth that is collected;a place where sth is stored ready for used.a raised area of ground that slopes at the sides,often at the edge of sth or dividing sthb)Physical contextOur understanding of much of what we read and hear is tied to the physical context,particularly the time and place,in which we
6、 encounter linguistic expressions.III.Deixis指示语 a)Person deixis:it,this,me,you,him,them,etc.b)Spatial deixis:here,there,near that,etc.c)Temporal deixis:now,then,tonight,last week,etc.Youll have to bring it back tomorrow because she isnt here today.Person deixisPerson deixisPerson deixisTemporal deix
7、isTemporal deixisSpatialdeixisAll the deictic expressions have to be interpreted in terms of which person,place or time the speaker has in mind.We make a broad distinction between what is marked as close to the speaker(this,here,now)and what is distant(that,there,then),we can also indicate whether m
8、ovement is away from the speakers location(go)or toward the speakers location(come).IV.Reference 指称In discussing deixis,we assumed that the use of words to refer to people and things was a simple matter.However,words themselves dont refer to anything.People refer.We have to define reference as an ac
9、t by which a speaker(or writer)uses language to enable a listener(or reader)to identify something.1.A:Can I look at your Chomsky?B:Sure,its on the shelf over there.Chomsky refers to the book written by Chomsky.2.Waiter 1:Wheres the fresh salad sitting?Waiter 2:Hes sitting by the door.Fresh salad ref
10、ers to the customer who ordered fresh salad.3.Teacher:You can borrow my Shakespeare.4.Waiter:the ham sandwich left without paying.5.Nurse:The hernia（疝气）in room 5 wants to talk to the doctor.6.Dentist:my eleven-thirty canceled so I had an early lunch.We can use names associated with things to refer t
11、o people and names of people to refer to things.The key process here is called inference.An inference is any additional information used by the listener to connect what is said to what must be meant.Termsa.Linguistic context(co-text)(语言语境上下文语境):It refers to that which occurs before and or after a wo
12、rd,a phrase or even a longer utterance or a text.It often helps in understanding the particular meaning of the word,phrase,etc.b.Physical context(客观环境语境):Our understanding of much of what we read and hear is tied to the physical context,particularly the time and place,in which we encounter linguisti
13、c expressions.c.Deixis(指示语):It comes from the Greek word deixis which means“pointing”via language.d.Reference(指称):It is concerned with the relation between a word and the thing it refers to,or more generally between a linguistic unit and a non-linguistic entity it refers to.e.Inference(推理):It refers to any additional information used by the listener to connect what is said to what must be meant.Thank you!