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1、语用学和认知语言学Lecture 2The scope of pragmaticsBackground ThetermpragmaticsstemsfromCharlesMorris(1938),whowas actually interested in semiotics(or semiotic).Morrisdistinguishedthreebranchesofstudywithinsemiotics:syntactics(orsyntax),thestudyoftheformalrelationofsignstooneanother”,semantics,thestudyofthere
2、lationsofsignstotheobjectstowhichsignsareapplicable”,andpragmatics,the study of the relation of signs to interpreters”(1938:6).backgroundAccordingtoMorris(1971:24),eachbranchofsemioticscanbefurtherdividedintopurestudiesanddescriptivestudies.backgroundMorrisdefinedthescopeofpragmaticsasfollows:It is
3、a sufficiently accurate characterization of pragmatics to say that it deals with the biotic aspects of semiosis,that is,with all the psychological,biological,and sociological phenomena which occur in the functioning of signs.(Morris,1938:108)backgroundwLevinson(1983:2)holdsthatthisscopeofpragmaticsi
4、sverymuchwiderthantheworkthatcurrentlygoesonundertherubricoflinguisticpragmatics,foritwouldincludewhatisnowknownaspsycholinguistics,sociolinguistics,neurolinguisticsandmuchbesides.backgroundIamZhangXiao,ZhangXiaoisagirl,thereforeIamagirl.wIfthefirsttwopremisesaretrueandthespeakeroftheconclusionisthe
5、samespeakerasthespeakerofthefirstpremise,thenwesaythestatementisnecessarilytrue.wBar-Hillel(1954)tooktheviewthatpragmaticsisthestudyoflanguages,bothnaturalandartificial,thatcontainindexicalordeicticterms.backgroundwLevinson(1983):Pragmaticsisthestudyofthoseprinciplesthatwillaccountforwhyacertainseto
6、fsentencesareanomalous,ornotpossibleutterances.(Levinson,1983:6)e.g.w(1)?Comethereplease!w(2)?AristotlewasGreek,butIdontbelieveitbackgroundw(3)?Johnschildrenarehippies,andhehasnochildrenw(4)?Iorderyounottoobeythisorderw(5)?Iherebysingw(6)?Aseveryoneknows,theearthpleaserevolvesaroundthesunBackgroundw
7、Theexplanationoftheseanomaliesmightbeprovidedbypointingoutthatthereareno,oratleastnoordinary,contextsinwhichtheycouldbeappropriatelyused.BackgroundwPragmatics is the study of those relations between language and context that are grammaticalized,or encoded in the structure of a language.the role of p
8、ragmatics wForexample,themeaningofwordslikewell,ohandanywayinEnglishcannotbeexplicatedsimplybystatementsofcontext-independentcontent.wWecanorefertopragmaticconceptslikerelevance,implicature,ordiscoursestructure.Current interests in Pragmaticswquantifiersomeinthefollowingmeanssomeandnotall:wSome ten
9、cent pieces are rejected by this vendingmachine.wButsupposeIamtryingtousethemachine,andItrycoinaftercoinunsuccessfully,andIuttertheabovesentence;Imightthenverywellcommunicate:wSome,andperhapsall,tencentpiecesarerejectedbythisvendingmachine.Current interests in Pragmaticsw(1)A:I could eat the whole o
10、f that cake implication:IcomplimentyouonthecakewB:Ohthanksw(2)A:Doyouhavecoffeetogo?Implication:SellmecoffeetogoifyoucanwB:Creamandsugar?w(3)A:HiJohnwB:Howreyoudoing?wA:Say,whatre you doing Implication:Ive got asuggestionaboutwhatwemightdotogetherwB:Well,weregoingout.Why?wA:OhIwasjustgoingtosaycomeo
11、ut.Understanding and Using LanguagewP:WhatsyournamebythewaywS:StephenwP:YouhaventaskedmynamebackwS:WhatsyournamewP:ItsPatUnderstanding and Using LanguagewAppropriacywIthinkyoucouldgoinnowyouknowwAreweallherewNon-literal or indirect meaningwRight,shallwebeginwInferencewImaman.(awomancolleaguesays)wFe
12、maletoiletonfloorabove(asignonthedoorofthegentlemenstoilet)Understanding and Using LanguagewIndeterminacy(utterances are underdetermined)wImamanwIreallylikeyournewhaircutwAreyouherePeterwContextwImtired(sayatnightorinthemorning)wRelevancewIsupposetodayitsespeciallyimportanttobethinkingcarefullyabout
13、whatourstudentssaytousUnderstanding and Using LanguagewMisfires(misfiresareimportantbecausetheytellusthatthereareexpectednormsfortalkbyshowingustheeffectwhenthenormisnotachieved.)wWillyouhavesomemorechocolatewIdidntevenhaveanytobeginwithPragmatics in Chinaw外语教学的语用学研究w翻译研究w面向汉语语法的语用学研究w英汉对比研究w跨文化交际研究
14、w1989年全国首届语用学研讨会IntroductionwCognitiveLinguisticsisanewapproachtothestudyoflanguagethatemergedinthe1970s.wCognitiveLinguisticsisnotatotallyhomogeneousframework.UngererandSchmid(1997)distinguishthreemainapproaches:Experientalview,theProminenceviewandtheAttentionalviewoflanguage.IntroductionwTheExperi
15、entalview.Itistheuserofthelanguagewhotellsuswhatisgoingonintheirmindswhentheyproduceandunderstandwordsandsentences.wEleanorRoschet al.(1977,1978)carriedoutthefirstresearchtostudycognitivecategories,whichledtotheprototypetheory.IntroductionwLakoffandJohnson(1980)wereamongthefirstonestopinpointthiscon
16、ceptualpotential,especiallyinthecaseofmetaphors.IntroductionwTheProminenceviewisbasedonconceptsofprofilingandfigure/groundsegregation.Theprominenceprincipleexplainswhy,whenwelookatanobjectinourenvironment,wesingleitoutasaperceptuallyprominentfigurestandingoutfromtheground.IntroductionwTheAttentional
17、viewassumesthatwhatweactuallyexpressreflectswhichpartsofaneventattractourattention.wFillmores(1975)notionofframe:anassemblageoftheknowledgewehaveaboutacertainsituation.IntroductionwThereisacomplexrelationshipbetweenlanguage,experience,andthemind.wCognitiveperspective:languageispartofacognitivesystem
18、whichcomprisesperception,emotions,categorization,abstractionprocesses,andreasoning.Allthesecognitiveabilitiesinteractwithlanguageandareinfluencedbylanguage.IntroductionwItemphasizestheeffectofhumanexperienceoftheworld,theuniquewayhumansperceiveandconceptualizethatexperience,andhowtheseareinturnrefle
19、ctedinthestructureoflanguageitself.IntroductionwMeaningissaidtoresideinconceptualization,andgrammarisnotseenasautonomous.IntroductionwLanguageismuchmorethanjustamirror.Itdescribesourindividualandcollectiveexperiencesoftheworld.IntroductionwCognitiveLinguisticsiscross-disciplinary.Itsrelatedfieldsinc
20、lude:epsychology,neurophysiology,computerscienceandgeneralcogntivescience.wSofar,muchoftheresearchhasfocusedonmetaphor,prototype,categorisation,radialstructures,mentalspaces,embodimentandsoon.wCognitiveLinguistics:boththedesignfeaturesoflanguages,andourabilitytolearnandusethemareaccountedforbygenera
21、lcognitiveabilities,ourhumancategorisationstrategies,togetherwithourcultural,contextualandfunctionalparameters.wHumanconceptualcategories,themeaningofwordsandsentencesandthemeaningoflinguisticstructuresarenotasetofuniversalabstractfeaturesoruninterpretedsymbols.wTheyaremotivated andgroundedmoreorles
22、sdirectlyinourbodily,physical,socialandculturalexperiences.wCognitiveLinguistics:meaningsdonotexistindependentlyfromthepeoplethatcreateandusethem;meaningisbasedonindividualexperienceaswellascollectiveexperience.wHumancategorisation:theabilitytojudgethataparticularthingisorisnotaninstanceofaparticula
23、rcategory.wWhenexperienceisusedtoguidetheinterpretationofanewexperience,theabilitytocategorisebecomesindispensable.whumancategorieshavetwotypesofmembers:theprototypeandseveralless-centralmembersrelatedtotheformerinamotivatedway.wTheprototypeisthemosttypicalmemberofacategory.wMetaphoroccupiesacentral
24、positioninCognitiveLinguistics.wAnotherimportantandinterestingareaofresearchistheinteractionbetweenmetaphorandmetonymy.KnowledgewGettingknowledgeaboutsomethingislikemaking a map of a place orliketravelling there.Teachingsomeoneislikeshowingthemhowtoreach a place.wThis term,we will be exploring the p
25、sychology of sport.wIn todays class,I will map out the most important concepts.KnowledgewWe can approach the subject from several directions.wCan you give me a few pointers?What should I read first?wIt is an excellent guide to English vocabulary.wThe program allows you to navigate the Web more easil
26、y.wThe first step in learning a language is to learn its sounds.wThis aspect of his work is very much uncharted territory.wWere on surer/more familiar ground here.wNew students have to take an orientation course.KnowledgewWhenyouhavesomeknowledgeaboutsomething,itiswasifyouareshining a light onit.Not
27、havingknowledgeislikebeing in darkness.wAllow me to shed/throw some light on the matter.wCan you enlighten me as to what your intentionsware?wThere are a couple of points that Id like you to clear up.wHer work has greatly illuminated this aspect of the subject.KnowledgewThis spotlights/highlights th
28、ewproblems of bilingual children.wHe kept us in the dark about his plans.wThe book concerns the shadowy world of espionage.wI only have a dim recollection of what happened next.wI havent got the foggiest/faintest idea.AchievementwAnachievementislikeabuilding,andtheprocessofachievingisliketheprocesso
29、fbuilding.wThey built up the business over 20 years.wThe organization was built on traditional principles.wThis web site is still under construction.wThey laid the foundations for future success with a carefully balanced range of products.AchievementwThis was the blueprint for success.wShe was the a
30、rchitect of the companys expansion overseas.wIt is a towering achievement.wThese developments threatened the whole edifice of government.wAll her lifes work was in ruins.wStrong foreign markets are the building blocks of a successfulweconomy.wEverything seemed to come crashing down around them.Angry
31、wBeingangryislikebeinghot oron fire.wShe burned with indignation.wHe has a fiery temper.wJack was a hot-tempered young man.wTheir parents were having a heated argument/debate about where to go.wThey were having a blazing/flaming row.wShe often flares up over nothing.wIt made my blood boil.wI lost my
32、 cool.wAlison was getting very hot under the collar.AngrywLosingyourtemperislikeanexplosion.wWhen she told him,he nearly exploded.wHe blew up at her.wSteve couldnt contain his anger any longer.wIt was an explosive situation.wIm sorry I blew my top.wThere was another angry outburst from Chris.wAlex w
33、as bursting with anger.wShell blow a fuse/a gasket if she finds out.wBob went ballistic when he saw what they had done.wA major row erupted at the meeting.ArgumentwAnargumentislikeafight orwar,withpeopleattackingweachothersopinionsanddefendingtheirown.wShe tried to defend herself against his attacks
34、 on her ideas.wShe shot down his argument.wThat is an indefensible point of view.wI decided to pursue another line of attack.wWe had a big fight last night,and I went home early.wThere was a lot of conflict over what to do next.wIt was a real battle of wits.wWe did battle with the council about the
35、plans.wIve crossed swords with them before.ConfusedwBeingconfusedislikebeinglost orin the wrong place orposition.wYouve lost me.What do you mean?wI was completely at sea:it was all so new to me.wI felt adrift and alone,with no real sense of direction.wI seem to have lost my bearings.wI dont know if
36、Im coming or going.wI feel like a fish out of water.wYouve got it all back to front.ConversationwAconversationordiscussionislikeajourney,withthespeakersgoingfromoneplacetoanother.wLets go back to what you were saying earlier.wCan we return to the previous point?wI cant quite see where youre heading.
37、wThe conversation took anwunexpected turn/direction.wIm listening Go on!wWeve covered a lot of ground.wI was just coming to that.ConversationwWe eventually arrived at a conclusion.wIts a roundabout way of saying shes refusing our offer.wYoure on the right/wrong track.wWe wandered off the topic.wThe
38、conversation drifted rather aimlessly.wWe kept going round and round in circles.MindwYourmindislikeacontainer orarea,withthoughtsbeingstoredthereorgoinginandout.wThe memory of that day is still fresh in my mind.wA few doubts remained at the back of my mind.wCant you get it into your head that Im not
39、 interested?wHis head is filled with useless facts and figures.wIve been searching my memory,but I still dont know who she is.MindwTry to relax:empty your mind.wI pushed/drove the thought out of my mind.wIt crossed her mind that he was lying.wThe idea never entered my head.wThe name was fixed/stuck
40、in her mind.wI have my suspicions,but Im trying to keep an open mind.wHis mind is closed to any new ideas.LifewLifeislikeajourney,andyourexperiencesarelikedifferentpartsofajourney.Dyingisliketravellingtoanotherplace.wThe baby arrived just after midnight.wHe came into the world in 1703.wI set out to
41、become a doctor,but it never worked out.wShe went through life without ever knowing the truth.wIts all been an uphill struggle.wWe seem to be at a crossroads.LifewHis life took an unexpected direction.wHe embarked on a new career.wYouve got to move on and forget about whats happened.wWill they go th
42、e distance?wShes well on the way to recovery.wTheyre over the hill now.wHis grandmother passed away/on last year.wThey remembered the departed in their prayers.LifewEventsinyourlifearelikegames,withpeopletryingtowin,orwiththingshappeningbychance.wIm on a winning/losing streak.wYou win some,you lose
43、some.wIts all been a race against time.wThis is not a level playing field.wTheyre planning to drop out of the rat race.wIs he in/out of the running?wThe election will be a one-horse race.wThey asked,but their parents wouldnt play ball.LifewThis development has been on/in the cards for some time.wIf you play your cards right,you shouldnt have any problems.wThe cards were stacked against us.wThen they played their trump card and we gave in.wWe just had a lucky throw of the dice.wAll bets are off nobody knows what will happen now.