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1、PragmaticsPragmaticsHeated Attendant ParkingA.You take an attendant,you heat him/her up,and this is where you can park him/her.B.We can park a car in this place,its a heated area,and there will be an attendant to look after the car.More Introductory ExamplesEx.1 I have a paper to typewrite.Can you t
2、ype this paper for me?Im busy now.Can you lend your typewriter to me?Ex.2 A bull market in Dianas(U.S.News and World Report,Jan.12,1998 124/1)A bull market is a market in which share prices are rising.Ex.3季交恕：你知道这个消息吗？方维夏：什么消息？季交恕：蒋介石开刀开刀了？方维夏：什么病开刀开刀？季交恕：你还睡觉！杀人！李六如 六十年的变迁 Pragmatics can be defined
3、 as the study of how speakers use the sentences of a language to effect successful communication.Pragmatics is different from traditional semantics in that it studies meaning not in isolation but in context.Semanticists take meaning to be an inherent property of language;pragmaticists regard meaning
4、 as something that is realized in the course of communication.Semantics:what does X mean?Pragmatics:what does the speaker mean by X?Pragmatic Analysis你怎么还没走？你怎么还没走？Think what the speaker may mean by saying it?A.说话人知道听话人要在某个时间外出开会（或办事、或送人上火车、或赴宴等），眼看已经快误点了，说话人对听话人说：“你怎么还没走”？意义：提醒、催促，或是对听话人不守时间的批评。若考虑
5、双方的关系：上下级关系、师生关系、父母子女之间，恋人之间等，则可理解的意思还多些。B.一个人老想着出国，老对别人说要办好手续了，但老也没见他出国。有人就说：“你怎么还没走”？意义：关心、调侃或嘲讽。C.下班时间早过了，某人还在办公室忙乎，值班人员过来锁门，说：“你怎么还没走”？意思：爱护、生气或某种猜测D.一个普通老百姓来到某个部门办事，被某个态度不好的工作人员拒之门外。过了半天，那工作人员看见老百姓还在门口，于是说：“你怎么还不走”？意思：可以比较肯定地认为，这是一种不太友好的态度，是让对方赶快走开的意思。Sentence Meaning Utterance MeaningIt is the
6、 abstract c o n t e x t-independent entity called s e m a n t i c proposition.I t i s c o n t e x t-dependent.It is the product of sentence meaning and context.Therefore,it is richer than the meaning of t h e s e n t e n c e.刘勰文心雕龙章句“人之而言，因字而生句，积句而成章，积章而成篇。篇之彪炳，章之无疵也；章之明靡，句无玷也；句之精英，字无妄也。”上下文、话语理解、话语
7、表达上下文、话语理解、话语表达Context plays a crucial role in interpreting the meaning of an utterance.ContextLinguistic contextContext The knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearerSituational contextAmazingly,he already loves her.Something male and animate has arrived at a state of adoration of something fem
8、ale and animate.John met Mary yesterday.Amazingly,he already loves her.Linguistic context:discourseThe discourse that precedes and follows the phrase or sentence to be interpretedThe knowledge of the language1.John saw the boy with the telescope.Dan also saw him.A pronoun replaces the preceeding nou
9、n phrase.2.Emily hugged Cassidy and Zachary did too.Pro-verb3.I am sick,which depresses me.Pro-sentence4.A:My aunt washed the dishes.B:My uncle dried.Ellipsis5.Jill washed the grapes and Bill the cherries.Your ex-husband is dancing with someone,but I dont know who.My cat ate something,and I wish I k
10、new what.She said she was coming over,but she did not say when.Sluicing A:I saw a boy and a girl holding hands and kissing.B:Oh,it sounds lovely.A:Yes,the boy was quite tall and handsome,and he seemed to like the girl a lot.There are such rules of discourse that a violation produces unacceptable res
11、ults.A:Yes,a boy was quite tall and handsome,and he seemed to like a girl a lot.e.g.It seems that the man loves the woman.Many people think he loves her.It seems that the man loves the woman.Many people think he loves her!Situational contextThe knowledge about the worldI waved to Frankie,whod thrown
12、 the bowline on board,and I headed her out of the slip and dropped down the channel with her.A British freighter was going out and I ran along beside her and passed her.She was loaded deep with sugar and her plates were rusty.A limey in an old blue sweater looked down at me from her stern as I went
13、by her.(Hemingway,To have and have not)And that afternoon Sue came to the bed where Johnsy lay and put one arm around her.“I have something to tell you,white mouse,”she said.“Mr.Behrman died of pneumonia today in the hospital.He was ill only two days.”(O.Henry,The Last Leaf)a young healthy child wel
14、l nursed is at a year old a most delicious,nourishing,and wholesome food,whether stewed,roasted,baked,or boiled;and I make no doubt that it will equally serve in a fricassee or a ragout.Those who are more thrifty(as I must confess the times require)may flay the carcass;the skin of which artificially
15、 dressed will make admirable gloves for ladies,and summer boots for fine gentlemen.(Jonathan Swift,A Modest Proposal)The noble Brutus,Hath told you Caesar was ambitious:If it were so,it was a grievous fault,And grievously hath Caesar answered it.Here,under leave of Brutus and the rest,-For Brutus is
16、 an honourable man;So are they all,all honourable men,-Come I to speak in Caesars funeral.He was my friend,faithful and just to me:But Brutus says he was ambitious;And Brutus is an honourable man.He hath brought many captive homes to Rome,Whose ransoms did the general coffers fill:Did this in Caesar
17、 seem ambitious?When that the poor have cried,Caesar hath wept:Ambition should be make of sterner stuff:Yet Brutus says he was ambitious;Shakespeare,Julius CaesarAnd Brutus is an honourable man.You all did see that on the Lupercal I thrice presented him a kingly crown,Which he did thrice refuse.Was
18、this ambitious?Yet Brutus says he was ambitious;And,sure,he is an honourable man.I speak not to disprove what Brutus spoke,But here I am to speak what I do know.You all did love him once,not without cause:What cause withholds you then to mourn for him?O judgment,thou art fled too brutish beasts,And
19、men have lost their reason!Bear with me;My heart is in the coffin here with Caesar,And I must pause till it come back to me.Whether a word is pejorative or not depends on the context.How is the humoristic effect created in the following?Speech Act TheoryS p e e c h a c t t h e o r y w a s originated
20、 with the British philosopher John Austin in the late 50s.According to this theory,we are performing various kinds of acts when we a r e s p e a k i n g.Background:Essence:You can use language to do things.Before the speech act theory:The business of a statement is either to describe or to state.It
21、must be either true or false.I bet you ten dollars that the Yankees win.I challenge you to a match.I dare you to step over this line.I fine you$100 for possession of oregano.Austins discovery:I move that we adjourn.I nominate Batman for mayor of Gotham City.I promise to improve.I resign!I pronounce
22、you husband and wife.（1）我感谢你为我提供了一个就业的机会。（2）我劝你不要辞职。（3）我宣判你服10年苦役。（4）我保证明年聘你为教授。Austin made the primary distinction between two t y p e s o f u t t e r a n c e s:c o n s t a t i v e a n d p e r f o r m a t i v e.Constative vs.PerformativeThe constative utterance is verifiable and it is e i t h e r t
23、rue or false.The performative utterance is used to perform an action,so it has no truth value.“I do.”“I pronounce you husband and wife.”as uttered in the course of a marriage ceremony.Examples:“I name this ship Elizabeth.”as uttered when smashing the bottle against the stern.“I give and bequeath my
24、watch to my brother.”as occurring in a will.“I bet you sixpence it will rain tomorrow.”as uttered when making a bet.“I warn you that there is a sleepdog in the closet.”Instructor:(Walking into the classroom and seeing the blackboard scribbled all over.)Im going to make a lot of use of the board.Stud
25、ents:(Silent)Instructor:Can anyone help me clean the board?（学校大会上）领导：领导：学校今年亏损两千万。（学生大会）班主任班主任：今年我又被扣奖金了。While making an utterance,a speaker is performing three acts simultaneously:a locutionary act：以言述事的述事行为以言述事的述事行为an illocutionary act：以言行事的行事行为以言行事的行事行为a perlocutionatry act：以言成事的成事行为以言成事的成事行为“Spe
26、aking a language is performing speech acts.”Searle 1969A locutionary act is the act of saying something;it is an act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax,lexicon and phonology.述事行为就是说出所要说的话。述事行为就是说出所要说的话。An illocutionary act is the act performed in saying something;its force is identical
27、with the speakers intention.In saying X I was doing Y.e.g.“Ill return tomorrow.”“爱你一万年。”行事行为是说话人要用他说的话行事行为是说话人要用他说的话干什么事。干什么事。A perlocutionary act is the act performed by or resulting from saying something;it is the consequence of,or the change brought about by the utterance.By saying X I did Y.e.g.
28、我明天来。许诺 听者放心Think：Can you close the door?吃了没有？抽烟有害健康。能帮我把行李放上去吗？To sum up,the three speech acts constitute an organic whole.Searle specified five types of illocutionary speech acts:1)representative 断定 2)directive 指令 3)commissive 承诺 4)expressive 表情 5)declaration 宣告The illocutionary point of the repre
29、sentatives is to commit the speaker to somethings being the case,to the truth of the expressed proposition.I guess that he has come.I think that the film is moving.I am certain that he has come.e.g.Directives are attempts by the speaker to get the hearer to do something.Open the door!Dont you think
30、its a bit stuffy here?Commissives are those illocutionary acts whose point is to commit the speaker to some future course of action.When speaking,the speaker puts himself under obligation.e.g.“Ill bring you this book.”I promise to love you!The illocutionary point of expressives is to express the psy
31、chological state specified in the propositional content such as apologizing,thanking,congratulating,welcoming etc.Im sorry for the mess I have made.Its very kind of you to have thought of me.e.g.The point of the declaration is to bring about the correspondence between the propositional content and r
32、eality.e.g.I declare the meeting open.I appoint you chairman of the committee.I fire you!What is implied?a.山姆经常吸烟。（断言）b.山姆经常吸烟吗？（提问）c.山姆，你要经常吸烟。（命令、建议）d.愿山姆经常吸烟。（祝愿）e.Hello!f.My God!Propositional content/illocutionary forcePrinciple of ConversationThe co-operative principleIn making conversation,Gri
33、ce holds that there is a general principle which all participants are expected to observe.Make your conversational contribution such as required at the stage at which it occurs by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged.The maxim of quantity1.Make your contrib
34、ution as informative as required(for the current purpose of the exchange).2.Do not make your contribution more informative than is required.The maxim of quality1.Do not say what you believe to be false.2.Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.The maxim of relationBe relevant.The maxim
35、of manner1.Avoid obscurity of expression.2.Avoid ambiguity.3.Be brief.4.Be orderly.Instances of CP我不是说这个，我是说，您有必要这么上班下班地干么？唉，净说孩子话。你算算吧，妈妈的工资奖金补贴加上你爸爸的抚恤金一月才二百来块钱。可您老这么干下去，身体怎么受得了，您垮了，我怎么办？放心吧，蓓蓓，妈垮不了。刘立英微笑着，“我女儿还没成人呢，我怎么能垮？”苏蓓脸低得恨不得要埋进饭碗，片刻，站起身。我去厕所。苏蓓低头快步走进厕所，关上门，背倚门上，忍了半天的眼泪“刷”地流了下来。王海鸽、王朔爱你没商量我（
36、吴士宏）被指定加我（吴士宏）被指定加考考RPGRPG，是比较是比较新的计算机语言，准备了两个星期，觉新的计算机语言，准备了两个星期，觉得能考及格。考完后像盼亲人似的盼着得能考及格。考完后像盼亲人似的盼着助理来报分，终于姗姗地来了，见了我助理来报分，终于姗姗地来了，见了我两手摊开说两手摊开说“真为你遗憾真为你遗憾”，皱着眉头，皱着眉头满脸都是遗憾。大约是见我面无人色，满脸都是遗憾。大约是见我面无人色，她赶快又笑着解释她赶快又笑着解释“我的意思是你没有我的意思是你没有考到考到100100分只考了分只考了8989分分”，天啦，她幽天啦，她幽的这一默可是能要人命的。的这一默可是能要人命的。季交恕：你知
37、道这个消息吗？季交恕：你知道这个消息吗？方维夏：什么消息？方维夏：什么消息？季交恕：蒋介石开刀了？季交恕：蒋介石开刀了？方维夏：什么病开刀？方维夏：什么病开刀？季交恕：季交恕：你还睡觉！杀人！你还睡觉！杀人！李六如李六如 六十年的变迁六十年的变迁 When we violate these maxims,in some situations,conversational implicature will arise.A:Do you know where Mr.X lives?B:Somewhere in the southern suburbs of the city.(said when
38、it is known to both A and B that B has Mr.Xs address.)A:Would you like to come to our party tonight?B:Im afraid Im not feeling so well today.安启森、许童童双双出现在客厅门口。周华笑笑：“哟，童童！”许童童脸红了：“他说他有杰克逊的激光唱片。”周华：“别解释，别解释。”许童童：“我们真的没什么！”安启森一本正经：安启森一本正经：“童童，在姐姐面前就不必童童，在姐姐面前就不必隐瞒了吧！隐瞒了吧！”许童童着急地：“我隐瞒了什么了？我有什么好隐瞒的？安启森你自己
39、说！”（王海鸰、王朔爱你没商量）A:The hostess is an awful bore.Dont you think?B:The roses in the garden are beautiful,arent they?(said when it is known to both A and B that it is entirely possible for B to make a comment on the hostess)A:Shall we get something for the kids?B:yes.But I veto I-C-E-C-R-E-A-M.(said whe
40、n it is known to both A and B that B has no difficulty in pronouncing the word“ice-cream”).Think:老汉只好站了起来，看看要断黑的天色，走到屋里磨磨蹭蹭地转了好半天才摸到一只手电筒。出门时，他极不放心地看了看留在屋里的两个年轻人，不叮嘱不安心，叮嘱又不知怎么说好，隔了一阵，被廖山田催不过了，才说了声：“那灶那灶里的火，封牢了，莫燃起来烧了屋。乡里的火，封牢了，莫燃起来烧了屋。乡里，比不得城里！里，比不得城里！”（水运宪雷暴，当代1984年第2期）Situation:A boy and his girlfriend are picnicking.Girl:I want to pick some flowers.Boy:You need any help?