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1、Chapter 6 Pragmatics ContentsIntroductionMicropragmatics Reference 指称 Deixis 指示 Anaphora 回指 Presupposition 预设Macropragmatics Speech Act Theory The Cooperative Principle The Politeness Principle6.1 IntroductionYou need to knowthe definition of pragmaticsthe differences between grammatical analysis an
2、d pragmatic analysisToday is Sunday.definition of pragmaticsthe study of language in use or language communication;the study of the use of context to make inference about meaning;the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication.the differences between grammati
3、cal analysis and pragmatic analysisrules/principlesproducts/processes6.2 Micropragmatics Reference Deixis Anaphora Presupposition6.2.1 Referencea.Where is the fresh salad sitting?b.Hes sitting by the door.a.Can I look at your Shakespeare?b.Sure,its on the shelf over there.You need to knowinference:p
4、rocessreference:the act6.2.2 DeixisYou need to know:definition of deixis five types of deixis definition of deixis five types of deixisPerson deixisTime deixisSpace deixisDiscourse deixisSocial deixis6.2.3 AnaphoraYou need to know:definition of anaphora,antecedent,anaphor indirect anaphora and direc
5、t anaphora6.2.4 PresuppositionYou need to know:definition of presupposition,presupposition triggers examples of presupposition triggers6.3.1 Speech act theory 言语行为理论illocutionary actsclassification of illocutionary actsindirect speech actsSpeech acts is a term derived from the work of the philosophe
6、r J.L.Austin(1962)and now used to refer to a theory which analyzes the role of utterances in relation to the behavior of the speaker and the hearer in interpersonal communication.It aims to answer the question“What do we do when using language?”6.3.1.1 Illocutionary acts 言外行为You need to knowdefiniti
7、on of speech acts,performative sentences,felicity conditionsthree kinds of acts(言语行为三分说)Some basic notions in PragmaticsContext Pragmatics vs.semantics Sentence meaning vs.utterance meaning Correctness vs.appropriateness ContextContext-a basic concept in the study of pragmatics.It is generally consi
8、dered as constituted knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer,such as cultural background,situation(time,place,manner,etc.),the relationship between the speaker and the hearer,etc.Pragmatics vs.semantics Semantics-is the study of the literal meaning of a sentence(without taking context into co
9、nsideration).Pragmatics-the study of the intended meaning of a speaker(taking context into consideration),e.g.“Today is Sunday”,semantically,it means that today is the first day of the week;pragmatically,you can mean a lot by saying this,all depending on the context and the intention of the speaker,
10、say,making a suggestion or giving an invitation Sentence meaning vs.utterance meaning-Sentence meaning:Abstract and context-independent meaning;literal meaning of a sentence;having a dyadic relation as in:What does X mean?-utterance meaning:concrete and context-dependent meaning;intended meaning of
11、a speaker;having a triadic relation as in:What did you mean by X?For example,“The bag is heavy”can mean a bag being heavy(sentence meaning);an indirect,polite request,asking the hearer to help him carry the bag;the speaker is declining someones request for help.Note:The meaning of an utterance is ba
12、sed on the sentence meaning;it is the realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication,or simply in a context;utterance meaning is richer than sentence meaning;it is identical with the purpose for which the speaker utters the sentence.Correctness vs.appropriaten
13、ess*“John play golf”-grammatically incorrect;?“Golf played John”-logically incorrect;but it might be appropriate pragmatically in certain context.Note:Pragmatics can make sense out of nonsense,given a suitable context.Appropriateness is very important in linguistic communication,especially in cross-
14、cultural communication.If you say something grammatically incorrect,you are at worse condemned as“speaking badly”,but,if you say something inappropriately,you will be judged as“behaving badly”,such as insincere,untruthful,or deceitful.(Thomas,1983)Speech act theory Two types of utterancesConstatives
15、(叙述句)-statements that either state or describe,and are thus verifiable;Performatives(施为句)-sentences that do not state a fact or describe a state,and are not verifiable.Note:Sometimes they are easy to get confused,e.g.“It is raining outside”can be a constative,and also a performative,for by uttering
16、such a sentence,we may not only state a fact,but involve in the act of informing someone about the rain.Some Examples of Performatives“I do”“I name this ship Elizabeth.”“I give and bequeath my watch to my brother.”“I bet you sixpence it will rain tomorrow.”“I declare the meeting open.”Austins new mo
17、del of speech acts-According to Austins new model,a speaker might be performing three acts simultaneously when speaking:locutionary act,illocutionary act and perlocutionary act.The locutionary act-an act of saying something,i.e.an act of making a meaningful utterance(literal meaning of an utterance)
18、;The illocutionary act-an act performed in saying something:in saying X,I was doing Y(the intention of the speaker while speaking).The perlocutionary act-an act performed as a result of saying something:by saying X and doing Y,I did Z.For example,“It is cold in here.”Its locutionary act is the sayin
19、g of it with its literal meaning the weather is clod in here;Its illocutionary act can be a request of the hear to shut the window;Its perlocutionary act can be the hearers shutting the window or his refusal to comply with the request.-Analyze one more example:“You have left the door wide open.”Note
20、:Of the three acts,what speech act theory is most concerned with is the illocutionary act.It attempts to account for the ways by which speakers can mean more than what they say.Analyze the illocutionary acts of the following conversation between a couple:-(the telephone rings)-H:That the phone.(1)-W
21、:Im in the bathroom.(2)-H:Okay.(3)This seemingly incoherent conversation goes on successfully because the speakers understand each others illocutionary acts:(1)Making a request of his wife to go and answer the phone.(2)A refusal to comply with the request;issuing a request of her husband to answer t
22、he phone instead.(3)Accepting the wifes refusal and accepting her request,meaning“all right,Ill answer it.”Searles classification of speech acts(1969)Assertives/representatives(陈述)Directives(指令)Commissives(承诺)Expressives(表达)Declarations(宣布)Assertives/representatives-Stating or describing,saying what
23、 the speaker believes to be true,e.g.I think the film is moving.Im certain I have never seen the man before.I solemnly swear that he had got it.Directives-Trying to get the hearer to do something,e.g.I order you to leave right now.Open the window,please.Your money or your life!Commissives-Committing
24、 the speaker himself to some future course of action,e.g.I promise to come.I will bring you the book tomorrow without fail.Expressives-Expressing the speakers psychological state about something,e.g.Im sorry for being late.I apologize for the sufferings that the war has caused to your people.Declara
25、tions-Bringing about an immediate change in the existing state or affairs,e.g.I now appoint you chairman of the committee.You are fired.I now declare the meeting open.Note:(1)All the acts that belong to the same category share the same purpose but differ in their strength or force,e.g.I guess/am sur
26、e/swear he is the murderer.Note:(2)In order to get someone open the door,we can choose one from a variety of the forms in below:Could you open the door,please!Can you open the door!Do you mind opening the door?Open the door!The door please!Principle of conversation(Paul Grice)Cooperative principle(C
27、P)-According to Grice,in making conversation,there is a general principle which all participants are expected to observe.It goes as follows:Make your conversational contribution such as required at the stage at which it occurs by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you ar
28、e engaged.Four maxims of CPThe maxim of quality-Do not say what you believe to be false.-Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.The maxim of quantity-Make your contribution as informative as required for the current purpose of the exchange.-Do not make your contribution more informativ
29、e than is required.The maxim of relation-Be relevant(make your contribution relevant).The maxim of manner-Avoid obscurity of expression.-Avoid ambiguity.-Be brief.-Be orderly.Conversational implicature In real communication,however,speakers do not always observe these maxims strictly.These maxims ca
30、n be violated for various reasons.When any of the maxims is blantantly violated,i.e.both the speaker and the hearer are aware of the violation,our language becomes indirect,then conversational implicature arises.Violation of Maxim of quality-A:Would you like to go movie with me tonight?-B:The final
31、exam is approaching.Im afraid I have to prepare for it.-A:would you like to come to our party tonight?-B:Im afraid Im not feeling so well tonight.-A:Who was that lady I saw you with last night?-B:That was no lady,that was my wife.Violation of maxim of quantity At a party a young man introduces himse
32、lf by saying“Im Robert Sampson from Leeds,28,unmarried”“War is war.”“Girls are girls.”-A:When is Susans farewell party?-B:Sometime next month.Violation of maxim of relation-A:How did the math exam go today,Jonnie?-B:We had a basketball match with class 2 and we beat them.-A:The hostess is an awful bore.-B:The roses in the garden are beautiful,arent they?-A:What time is it?-B:The postman has just arrived.Violation of maxim of manner-A:Shall we get something for the kids?-B:Yes.But I veto I-C-E-C-R-E-A-M.Politeness principle(Leech)