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1、1.Introduction:Definition of PragmaticsThe study of language in use.The study of meaning in context.The study of speakers meaning,utterance meaning,&contextual meaning.第1页/共70页Sentence meaning:What does X mean?Utterance meaning:What do you mean by X?Ex.1.Dog!2.My bag is heavy.第2页/共70页Sentence Meanin
2、g context-independent.Utterance Meaning It is context-dependent.It is the product of sentence meaning and context.Therefore,it is richer than the meaning of the sentence.Semantic meaning:the more constant,inherent side of meaningPragmatic meaning:the more indeterminate,the more closely related to co
3、ntext第4页/共70页2.Speech Act TheoryJohn AustinHow to Do Things with Words(1962)speech acts:actions performed via utterances第5页/共70页Constatives vs.performativesConstatives:utterances which roughly serves to state a fact,report that something is the case,or describe what something is,eg:I go to the park
4、every Sunday.I teach English.第6页/共70页Performatives:utterances which are used to perform acts,do not describe or report anything at all;the uttering of the sentence is the doing of an action;they cannot be said to be true or false.Performative verbs:name,bet,etc.第7页/共70页I do.I name this ship Queen El
5、izabeth.I bet you sixpence it will rain tomorrow.I give and bequeath my watch to my brother.I promise to finish it in time.I apologize.I declare the meeting open.I warn you that the bull will charge.第8页/共70页Minister:addressing the groom)(Grooms Name),do you take(Brides Name)for your lawful wedded wi
6、fe,to live together after Gods ordinance,in the holy estate of matrimony?Will you love,honor,comfort,and cherish her from this day forward,forsaking all others,keeping only unto her for as long as you both shall live?XXX，你是否愿意娶xxx为妻，按照圣经的教训与他同住，在神面前和她结为一体，爱她、安慰她、尊重她、保护他，像你爱自己一样。不论她生病或是健康、富有或贫穷，始终忠於她
7、，直到离开世界？Groom:I do.第9页/共70页Felicity conditions:A.(i)There must be a relevant conventional procedure.(ii)the relevant participants and circumstances must be appropriate.B.The procedure must be executed correctly and completely.C.Very often,the relevant people must have the requisite thoughts,feelings
8、 and intentions,and must follow it up with actions as specified.第10页/共70页The distinction between constatives&performatives cannot be maintained.All sentences can be used to do things.第11页/共70页3.Illocutionary Act TheorySpeech acts can be analyzed on 3 levels:A locutionary act:is the linguistic aspect
9、 of an utterance,i.e.the act of verbally saying something.第12页/共70页An illocutionary act:An illocutionary act is the behavioral aspect of an utterance involving the intentions of the speaker,i.e.the act of dong something.第13页/共70页A perlocutionary act:is the consequential aspect of an utterance in ter
10、ms of the effects the speaker achieves on the hearer,i.e.the act of bring something to happen第14页/共70页Among these kinds of speech acts,pragmatists are most interested in illocutionary act.This is because illocutionary act conforms to the speakers intention and is thus the focus for the study of verb
11、al communication.第15页/共70页3.Conversational ImplicaturePeople do not usually say things directly but tend to imply them.H.P.GriceWilliam James lectures at Harvard in 1967Logic and Conversation in 1975第16页/共70页Grices theory Logic and Conversation is an attempt at explaining how a hearer gets from what
12、 is said to what is meant,from the level of expressed meaning to the level of implied meaning.第17页/共70页His answer is there is some regularity in conversation.Make your contribution such as required at the stage at which it occurs by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you
13、 are engaged.第18页/共70页Maxim of Quantity:Make your contribution as informative as required(for the current purposes of the exchange).Do not make your contribution more informative than is required.第19页/共70页 Maxim of Quality:Don not say what you believe to be false.Do not say that for which you lack e
14、vidence;第20页/共70页Maxim of Relation:Be relative.Maxim of Manner:Be perspicuous.Avoid obscurity of expression.Avoid ambiguity.Be brief.Be orderly.第21页/共70页CP is meant to describe what actually happens in conversation.People tend to be cooperative and obey CP in communication.第22页/共70页However,CP is oft
15、en violated.Violation of CP and its maxims leads to conversational implicature.第23页/共70页Violation of the maxims(Quantity)1.Make your contribution as informative as is required.A:昨天上街买了些什么?B:就买了些东西。I dont want to tell you what I bought.第24页/共70页2.Do not make your contribution more informative than is
16、 required.Aunt:How did Jimmy do his history exam?Mother:Oh,not at all well.Teachers asked him things that happened before the poor boy was born.Her son should not be blamed.第25页/共70页Violation of the maxims(Quality)1.Do not say what you believe to be false.X runs as fast as a deer.He is made of iron.
17、第26页/共70页2.Do not say that for which you lack evidence.A:Beirut is in Peru,isnt it?B:And Rome is in Romania,I suppose.Its ridiculous.第27页/共70页Violation of the maxims(Relation)Be relevant.A:Prof.Wang is an old bag.B:Nice weather for the time of year.I dont want to talk about Prof.Wang.第28页/共70页Violat
18、ion of the maxims(Manner)1.Avoid obscurity of expressionA:Lets get the kids something.B:Ok,but I veto C-H-O-C-O-L-A-TE.Dont give them chocolate.第29页/共70页2.Avoid ambiguity 买一赠一。第30页/共70页3.Be brief A:Did you get my assignment?B:I received two pages clipped together and covered with rows of black squig
19、gles.not satisfied.第31页/共70页Characteristics of implicatureCalculability:hearers work out implicature based on literal meaning,CP and its maxims,context,etc.第32页/共70页when sb says sth,which clearly does not make sense at the superficial level,the level of what is said,you will not simply think that he
20、 is talking nonsense,and stop thinking about it any more.You will instead try to find out its implied meaning at a deeper level.And if on the basis of every information available,there is one interpretation which may support your assumptions,then you will take it as the real point the speaker is try
21、ing to get across.第33页/共70页 In the case of the reference letter in the course book(p179),the reader will not simply think it utterly useless and stop thinking after the first reading.He will assume that the writer is still following some normal rules like CP and tries to say sth relevant.Since the m
22、ost important thing is whether the student is qualified for the position,the reader will have to assume that the writer has some negative views on that.第34页/共70页Cancellability/defeasibility:If the linguistic or situational contexts changes,the implicature will also change.A:Do you want some coffee?B
23、:Coffee would keep me awake.I do not like coffee.B:Coffee would keep me awake.I want to stay up.第35页/共70页Non-detachability:implicature is attached to the semantic content of what is said,not to the linguistic form;implicatures do not vanish if the words of an utterance are changed for synonyms.A:Sha
24、ll we go the cinema tonight?B:Therell be an exam tomorrow.Ill take an exam tomorrow.Isnt there an exam tomorrow?第36页/共70页Characteristics of implicatureNon-conventionality:implicature is different from its conventional meaning of words.It is context-dependent.It varies with context.A1：下午踢球去吧！A2：老王住院了
25、？B：上午还在换草皮。A3:足球场安装了一个新门柱。第37页/共70页Conclusion:Conversational implicature is a type of implied meaning,which is deduced on the basis of the conventional meaning of words together with the context,under the guidance of the CP and its maxims.In this sense,implicature is comparable to illocutionary forc
26、e in speech act theory in that they are both concerned with the contextual side of meaning,or 言外之意in Chinese.第38页/共70页5.Relevance TheoryThe theory was formally proposed by Dan Sperber and Deirdre Wilson in their book Relevance:Communication and Cognition第39页/共70页speakers may sometimes mean more than
27、 what they actually say.How do hearers know about it and fill this gap between the semantic content and pragmatic inference?Grices hypothesis is:there must be a principle to govern it-the Cooperative principle,as he puts it.In the CP,there is the maxim of relation the information should be relevant
28、to the topic.Grice s maxim of relation-be relevant-has been elevated to the status of an overriding principle governing communication and cognition by Sperber and Wilson.The principle of relevance is at the center of their claim of a new approach to the study of human communication.第40页/共70页Relevanc
29、e theory is a new approach to pragmatics.It attempts to answer not only philosophical questions(Grices abstract philosophical consideration of conversational implicature)about the nature of communication,but also psychological questions(esp.cognitive psychological mind)about how the interpretation p
30、rocess unfolds in the hearers mind.第41页/共70页They argue that all Gricean maxims should be reduced to a single principle of relevance,which is defined as:Every act of ostensive communication communicates the presumption of its own optimal relevance.第42页/共70页Two key notions in it:Ostensive communicatio
31、n and presumption of optimal relevanceCommunication is not simply a matter of encoding and decoding,it also involves inference.They maintain that inference has only to do with the hearer.From the speakers side,communication should be seen as an act of making clear ones intention to express something
32、.This is called ostensive act.A complete characterization of communication is that it is ostensive-inferential第43页/共70页Presumption of optimal relevanceThree definitions of relevance:1.An assumption is relevant in a context if and only if it has some contextual effect in the context.第44页/共70页But rele
33、vance is a comparative concept.Some assumptions may be more relevant than others.They have improved on the definition by adopting an extent-condition format:Extent condition 1:An assumption is relevant in a context to the extent that its contextual effects in this context are large.第45页/共70页Extent c
34、ondition 2:An assumption is relevant in a context to the extent that the effort required to process it in this context is small.第46页/共70页2.An assumption is relevant to an individual at a given time if and only if it is relevant in one or more of the contexts available to that individual at that time
35、.第47页/共70页An phenomenon is relevant to an individual if and only if one or more of the assumptions it makes manifest is relevant to him.第48页/共70页Presumption of optimal relevance means:1.The set of assumptions I which the communicator intends to make manifest to the addressee is relevant enough to ma
36、ke it worth the addressees while to process the ostensive stimulus.2.The ostensive stimulus is the most relevant one the communicator could have used to communicate I.第49页/共70页Every utterance comes with a presumption of the best balance of effort against effect.On the one hand,the effects achievable
37、 will never be less than is needed to make it worth processing.On the other hand,the effort required will never be more than is needed to achieve these effects.In comparison to the effects achieved,the effort needed is always the smallest.第50页/共70页Of all the interpretations of the stimulus which con
38、firm the presumption,it is the first interpretation to occur to the addressee that is the one the communicator intended to convey.E.g.George has a cat.The first interpretation is George has a big domestic cat.But it may also be used to mean George has a tiger,a lion,a jaguar（美洲豹）etc.But this will no
39、t be the most relevant on account of the increased processing effort involved.The first interpretation consistent with the principle of relevance is always the best hypothesis.第51页/共70页6.The Q-and R-principlesThese principles were developed by L.Horn in 1984.The Q-principle is intended to invoke the
40、 first maxim of Grices Quantity,and the R-principle the relation maxim,but the new principles are more extensive than the Gricean maxims.第52页/共70页The definition of the Q-principle(hearer-based)is:(1)Make your contribution sufficient(cf.quantity);(2)Say as much as you can(given R).The definition of t
41、he R-principle(speaker-based)is:(1)Make your contribution necessary(cf.Relation,Quantity-2,Manner);(2)Say no more than you must(given Q)第53页/共70页The hearer-based Q-principle is a sufficiency condition in the sense that information provided is the most the speaker is able to.The R-principle,in contra
42、st,encourages the hearer to infer that more is meant.第54页/共70页7.The Q-,I-and M-principlesThis tripartite model was suggested by S.Levinson mainly in his 1987 paper In essence(nature),Levinson says,the Q-,I-and M-principles are Grices two maxims of Quantity and a maxim of Manner reinterpreted neo-cla
43、ssically.And the maxims of Quality,as is the case in Horns theory,are kept intact(unchanged).第55页/共70页 Levinson does not agree with the treatment in both Sperber and Wilsons and Horns accounts(statements)to subsume(include)the second maxim of Quantity under a principle of relevance,or relation.第56页/
44、共70页So he renames the second maxim of Quantity the Principle of Informativeness,I-Principle for short;and the first maxim of Quantity the Principle of Quantity or Q-Principle.第57页/共70页Q-principle:Speakers maxim:Do not provide a statement that is informationally weaker than your knowledge of the worl
45、d allows,unless providing a stronger statement would contravene the I-principle.Recipients corollary:Take it that the speaker made the strongest statement consistent with what he knows.第58页/共70页I-principleSpeakers maxim:the maxim of minimizationSay as little as necessary,i.e.produce the minimal ling
46、uistic information sufficient to achieve your communicational ends.Recipients corollary:the enrichment ruleAmplify the informational content of the speakers utterance,by finding the most specific interpretation,up to what you judge to be the speakers m-intended point.第59页/共70页M-principleSpeakers max
47、im:Do not use a prolix,obscure or marked expression without reason.Recipients corollary:If the speaker used a prolix or marked expression M,he did not mean the same as he would have,had he used the unmarked expression U specifically he was trying to avoid the stereotypical associations.第60页/共70页Thre
48、e heuristicsHeuristic 1 what isnt said,isnt.Heuristic 2 what is simply described is stereotypically exemplifiedHeuristic 3 whats said in an abnormal way isnt normal;or marked message indicates marked situation.第61页/共70页8.Politeness PrincipleGrices CP does not explain why speakers often violate CP.Le
49、ech(1983)puts forward PP to save CP.As social beings,people need to talk politely.第62页/共70页A:Well miss Bill and Mary,wont we?B:Well,well all miss Bill.(violation of quantity maxim)第63页/共70页Self(自身)-refers to the speaker.Other(他人)-refers to the addressee or a third person,present or not.Benefit(惠)&Co
50、st(损)Generally speaking,if there is benefit,there must be cost.第64页/共70页For some acts such as giving an invitation,a piece of advice and an offer are considered polite-natured,for other is always on the beneficial side.For other acts like a request,an order and a demand are considered impolite-natur