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1、Chapter 8 Language in Use 1.TheScopeofPragmatics2.SpeechActTheory3.ConversationalImplicaturenSpeakersmeaning(utteranceorcontextualmeaning)theinterpretationofasentencedependsonwhothespeakeris,whotheheareris,whenandwhereitisused.Inaword,itdependsonthecontext.nThedisciplinewhichconcentrateonthiskindofm
2、eaningiscalledPragmatics.nPragmaticsisthestudyofthoserelationsbetweenlanguageandcontextthataregrammaticalized,orencodedinthestructureofalanguage.nPragmaticsisthestudyofallthoseaspectsofmeaningnotcapturedinasemantictheory.nPragmaticsisthestudyoftheabilityoflanguageuserstopairsentenceswiththecontextsi
3、nwhichtheywouldbeappropriate.nPragmaticscanbedefinedasthestudyoflanguageinuse.(Hu)nPragmaticscanbedefinedasthestudyofhowutteranceshavemeaningsinsituations.(Leech)Context and MeaningnWhatiscontextualmeaning?nItisthemeaningalinguisticitemhasincontext,forexamplethemeaningawordhaswithinaparticularsenten
4、ce,orasentencehasinaparticularparagraph.ThequestionDo you know the meaning of war?forexample,mayhavetwodifferentcontextualmeanings:n(1)itmaymeanDo you know the meaning of the word war?,whensaidbyalanguageteachertoaclassofstudents.n(2)itmaymeanWar produces death,injury,and suffering,whensaidbyaninjur
5、edsoldiertoapoliticianwhofavorswar.nThemeaningofaverysimplestatementdependsonwhosaysit,whotheyarespeakingtoandwherethetwopeopleare.Becausethepeoplearebothinthesituation,themeaningiscleartothemitdoesnotneedtobesaid.E.g.n The door is open.nPleasediscussthemeaningofthissentencebylistingthepeopleandthes
6、ituationinvolvedinit.meaningcontextYou forgot to lock it again,idiot!A bank manager to a clerk standing in front of the safe.What a relief!I dont have to wait for someone to come home.A person arrives home without a key.He tries the door and it opens.No wonder Im cold.A person sitting in a room that
7、 is freezing cold.Shut the door.Two people in an office.Its noisy next door but the speaker doesnt want to get up.Please come in.A receptionist in an office;someone has rung the bell or knocked.n(1)Theroomismessy.nPossiblecontext:n(a)Amildcriticismofsomeonewhoshouldhavecleanedtheroom.n(b)Inalanguage
8、classwhereastudentmadeamistake,forheintendedtosay“tidy”.n(c)Theroomwaswantedforameeting.n(2)Icantworkunderuntidycircumstances.nPossiblecontexts:n(a)Arequesttosomeonetotidyupthecircumstances.n(b)Itwasanexcusefornotwantingtodosomethingthere.n(c)Itisthespeakershabit.n(3)Itwouldbegoodifshehadagreenskirt
9、on.nPossiblecontext:n(a)Amildwaytoexpressdisagreementwithsomeonewhohascomplimentedonaladysappearance.n(b)Aregretthatthecustomerhadnottakenthedress.n(c)Thatsheworearedskirtwasnotinagreementwiththecustomontheoccasion.Semantics and PragmaticsnSemanticsstudiesliteral,structuralorlexicalmeaning,whileprag
10、maticsstudiesnon-literal,implicit,intendedmeaning,orspeakermeaning.nSemanticsiscontextindependent,decontextualized,whilepragmaticsiscontextdependent,contextualized.nSemanticsdealswithwhatissaid,whilepragmaticsdealswithwhatisimplicatedorinferred.8.1 Speech Act TheorynConsiderthesesentences:n1)I apolo
11、gize for stepping on your toe.n2)I now pronounce you man and wife.n3)A:What a boring movie.n B:You can say that again.n4)A:Marys cooking tonight.n B:Better buy some stomach pills.nSomeutterancescandothings.Theyareacts.n8.1.1PerformativesandconstativesnAustin(How to Do Things with Words,1962)nConside
12、rthesesentences:na)InamethisshipElizabeth.nb)Ibequeathmywatchtomybrother.nc)Inowpronounceyoumanandwife.nd)Ibetyousixpenceitwillraintomorrow.nTheutteranceofthesesentencesisthedoingofanaction.Theycannotbesaidtobetrueorfalse.Sothesesentencesarecalledperformatives.nAconstativesentenceisadescriptionofwha
13、tthespeakerisdoingatthetimeofspeaking.Itcanbesaidtobetrueorfalse.Forexample,I pour some liquid into the tube.nImplicitperformativesItscoldhere.nExplicitperformativesPleaseclosethedoor.nFelicityconditionshowtomakesth.validnAustin:Althoughperformativescannotbetrueorfalse,therearestillconditionsforthem
14、tomeettobeappropriateorfelicitous.nA.(i)Theremustbearelevantconventionalprocedure,andn(ii)therelevantparticipantsandcircumstancesmustbeappropriate.nB.Theproceduremustbeexecuted(i)correctlyand(ii)completely.nCVeryoften,(i)therelevantpeoplemusthavetherequisitethoughts,feelingsandintentions,and(ii)must
15、followitupwithactionsasspecified.nProblems:n1.Therearesomecasesinwhichonedoesnotneedaconventionalprocedure.Forexample,I give my word for it canalsobeusedtoperformtheactionofpromising.n2.Someperformativesentencespresupposetheexistenceofsomething,whichdoesnotactuallyexist.(I bequeath my watch to my br
16、other.)n3.Peoplemusthaverequisiteintentions,sotheycannotsayThe cat is on the mat,but I dont believe it.nAustintriedtoseparateperformativesfromconstativesongrammaticalandlexicalcriteria,buthefinallyfoundthatitwasalmostimpossible.(cf.p.188)n8.1.2SpeechActTheorynAustinlaterconsideredtheproblemagain,i.e
17、.inwhatsensetosaysomethingistodosomething.Inhisopinion,therearethreesensesinwhichsayingsomethingmaybeunderstoodasdoingsomething.ThusSpeechActTheoryisintroduced.n1.LocutionaryAct发话行为（以言指事）发话行为（以言指事）nWhenwespeakwemoveourvocalorgansandproduceanumberofsounds,organizedinacertainwayandwithacertainmeaning.
18、TheactperformedinthissenseiscalledLocutionaryAct(theactofsaying,theliteralmeaningoftheutterance).nItistheactofmakingthesentence;itisadescription(traditionalgrammar),forexample,“Morning!”Thelocutionistheactualformofwordsusedbythespeakerandtheirsemanticmeaning.n2.Illocutionaryact行事行为（以言行事）行事行为（以言行事）nW
19、henwespeak,wenotonlyproducesomeunitsoflanguagewithcertainmeaning(locution),butalsomakeourpurposeinproducingthem,thewayweintendthemtobeunderstood.ThisistheIllocutionaryAct,whichindicatesthespeakersintention.Theutteranceshavesomeillocutionaryforces(Austin).nForexample,“Morning”hastheforceofgreeting.n“
20、Force”,whichisequivalenttospeakersmeaning,contextualmeaning,orextrameaning,isconsidereddifferentfrom“meaning”whichmeanstheconstant,inherentsideofmeaning.nTheillocution(orillocutionaryforce)iswhatthespeakerisdoingbyutteringthosewords:commanding,offering,promising,threatening,thanking,etc.nClassifyeac
21、hofthefollowingutterancesasinterrogative,imperativeordeclarative.Thendecidewhatthespeakerisusingtheutterancetodo.na)Youcanpassthemilk.nb)Whydontyoupassthemilk?nc)Haveyougotthemilk?nd)Icouldseethemilk.ne)Getmethemilk.nf)Sendthemilkdownhere.nDespitethefactthate)andf)areimperatives,b)andc)areinterrogat
22、ivesanda)andd)aredeclaratives,allsixutterancescanbeactsofrequesting(milkinthiscase).nTherefore,differentlocutionscanhavethesameillocutionaryforce.nThedifferencebetweenlocutionandillocutioncanalsobeillustratedbythefollowingexample:nGive me some cash.(MikesutterancetoAnnie)nPleaseexplainit.nLOCUTION:M
23、ikeutteredthewordsGive me some cashwhichcanbesemanticallyparaphrasedas:“Handsomemoneyovertome”,withmereferringtoMike.nILLOCUTION:MikeperformedtheactofrequestingAnnietogivehimsomecash.nWeneedtodistinguishlocutionandillocutionbecausedifferentlocutionscanhavethesameillocutionaryforce.nSimilarly,thesame
24、locutioncanhavedifferentillocutionaryforcesdependingonthecontext.Forexample,Its cold in here.nTheillocutioncouldeitherbearequesttoclosethewindoworanoffertoclosethewindow.n3.Perlocutionaryact取效行为（以言成事）取效行为（以言成事）nItreferstotheconsequentialeffectsofalocutionuponthehearer.nBytellingsomebodysomethingthes
25、peakermaychangetheopinionoftheheareronsomething,ormisleadhim,orsurprisehim,orinducehistodosomething,etc.nWhetherornottheseeffectsareintendedbythespeaker,theycanberegardedaspartoftheactthatthespeakerhasperformed.nTake“Morning”againasanexample.Thespeakerwantstokeepfriendlyrelationswiththehearerbysayin
26、g“Morning”,andthisfriendlinesswillhaveeffectsonthehearer.Cf.p.189.nAnotherexampletoillustratethedistinctionamongthethreeacts:nIts stuffy in here.n1)TheLocutionaryactisthesayingofitwithitsliteralmeaningThereisntenoughfreshairinhere.n2)Theillocutionaryactcanbearequestofthehearertoopenthewindow.n3)Thep
27、erlocutionaryactcanbethehearersopeningthewindoworhisrefusaltodoso.nInfact,wemightutterthissentencetomakeastatement,arequest,anexplanation,orforsomeothercommunicativepurposes.nSeeanotherexamplegivenbyAustin(1962:101-102):n Shoot her!nThelocutionistheactofsaying“Shoother”andmeaningshootbyshootandher b
28、yher.Theillocutionistheactof,variously,urging,advising,orderingtheaddresseetoshoother.Buttheperlocutionistheactofpersuading,forcing,orfrighteningtheaddresseeintoshootingher.(Or,itmighthavetheperlocutionaryeffectoffrighteningher).nTheliteralmeaningistakencareofbysemanticsandtheeffectofanutteranceissu
29、bjecttomanyfactors,includingsocialpsychology,morethanlinguisticscancopewith.So,whatspeechacttheoryismostconcernedwithisillocutionaryacts.Itattemptstoaccountforthewaysbywhichspeakerscanmeanmorethanwhattheysay.nItisalsodesignedtoshowcoherenceinseeminglyincoherentconversations.Consider:na.Husband:Thats
30、thephone.nb.Wife:Iminthebathroom.nc.Husband:Okay.nIn a)the husband is not describing something-it is a thing that needs no description to his wife.He is making a request of his wife to go and answer the phone.nIn b),the wife is not describing her action either-people do not usually need to assert th
31、at they are in the bathroom.Its illocutionary acts are(i)a refusal to comply with the request and(ii)issuing a request to her husband to answer the phone instead.nIn c)the man accepts his wifes refusal and accepts her request,meaning All right,Ill answer it.“nThis analysis shows that this seemingly
32、unconnected conversation is very coherent on a speech-act level(in b and c,each performs two speech acts),and that in saying things people are in fact doing things.nInlinguisticcommunicationpeoplerespondtoanillocutionaryactofanutterance,becauseitisthemeaningintendedbythespeaker.nIfateachersays,“Ihav
33、erunoutofchalk”intheprocessoflecturing,theactofsayingislocutionary,theactofdemandingforchalkisillocutionary,andtheeffecttheutterancebringsaboutoneofthestudentswillgoandgetsomechalkisperlocutionary.nInEnglish,illocutionaryactsaregivenspecificlabels,suchas“request,warning,promise,invitation,compliment
34、,complaint,apology,offer,refusal,etc.”Thesespecificlabelsnamevariousspeechfunctions.nAsfunctionsmaynotcorrespondtoforms,speechactscanbedirectandindirect,forexample:nDirectspeechact:Close the door.nIndirectspeechact:Its cold in here.nWhydopeopleoftenspeakindirectlyinsocialcommunication?n1.Differentso
35、cialvariables:age,sex,socialconditionn2.Politeness:communicativestrategynIndirectspeechactsarerelatedtoappropriateness.nIndirectspeechactsaremadeforpoliteness,notviceversa.Tomakeappropriatechoicesdoesnotnecessarilymeanindirectspeechacts.nKindsofactionni)representatives(陈述陈述),thosekindsofspeechcommit
36、tedinvariouswaystothetruthofastatement(state,suggest,boast,complain,claim,report,warn,etc).na.Theearthisflat.nb.Itwasawarmsunnyday.nc.Chomskydidntwriteaboutmusic.nInusingarepresentative,thespeakermakeswordsfittheworld(ofbelief).Ofcourse,thedegreeofcommitmentvariesfromstatementtostatement.Thecommitme
37、ntissmallin“IguessJohnhasstolenthebookbutverystrongin“IsolemnlyswearthatJohnhasstolenthebook.nii)directives(命令命令),whichareattemptsbythespeakertogettheaddresseetodosomething.Theyexpresswhatthespeakerwants.(order,command,request,beg,advise,warn,recommend,ask,etc)na.Gimmeacupofcoffee.Makeitblack.nb.Cou
38、ldyoulendmeapen,please?nc.Donttouchthat.nInusingadirective,thespeakerattemptstomaketheworldfitthewords(viathehearer).niii)commissives(承诺承诺),whichcommitthespeakertosomefuturecourseofaction.Theyexpresswhatthespeakerintends.(promise,vow,offer,undertake,contract,threaten,etc)na.Illbeback.nb.Imgoingtoget
39、itrightnexttime.nc.Wewillnotdothat.nInusingacommissive,thespeakerundertakestomaketheworldfitthewords(viathespeaker).niv)expressives(表达表达),whichexpressapsychologicalstate(thank,congratulate,praise,blame,forgive,pardon,etc.)n a.Imreallysorry!nb.Congratulations!nc.Oh,yes,great,mmm,ssahh!nInusinganexpre
40、ssive,thespeakermakeswordsfittheworld(offeeling).nv)declaratives(宣布宣布),whicheffectimmediatechangesintheinstitutionalstateofaffairsandwhichtendtorelyonelaborateextra-linguisticinstitutions(resign,dismiss,christen,name,open,sentence,bid,declare,etc)n a.Priest:Inowpronounceyouhusbandandwife.nb.Referee:
41、Youreout!nc.JuryForeman:Wefindthedefendantguilty.nInusingadeclaration,thespeakerchangestheworldviawords.8.2 Conversational ImplicaturenSpeakersandlistenersaregenerallycooperatingwitheachotherindailyconversation.Inotherwords,whenpeoplearetalkingwitheachother,theymusttrytoconversesmoothlyandsuccessful
42、ly.Inacceptingspeakerspresuppositions,listenershavetoassumethataspeakerisnottryingtomisleadthem.nHowever,inrealcommunication,theintentionofthespeakerisoftennottheliteralmeaningofwhatheorshesays.Therealintentionimpliedinthewordsiscalledconversationalimplicature.nAmericanphilosopherHerbertPaulGrice(“L
43、ogicandConversation”,1975):Peopledonotusuallysaythingsdirectlybuttendtoimplythem.Forexample:n1)A:Hows John getting on?nB:Oh quite well,I think;he likes his colleagues,and he hasnt been to prison yet.n2)A:You are very beautiful without glasses.n B:Then I must be ugly with glasses.nThenhowdopeoplemana
44、getoconveyimplicature,whichisnotexplicitlyexpressed?n8.2.1TheCooperativePrinciple(CP)n“Makeyourcontributionsuchasisrequired,atthestageatwhichitoccurs,bytheacceptedpurposeordirectionofthetalkexchangeinwhichyouareengaged.”nA.MaximofQuantityni)Makeyourcontributionasinformativeasisrequired(forthecurrent
45、purposesoftheexchange).nii)Donotmakeyourcontributionmoreinformativethanisrequired.nB.MaximofQualitynTrytomakeyourcontributiononethatistrue,specifically:ni)donotsaywhatyoubelievetobefalse;nii)donotsaythatforwhichyoulackadequateevidence.nC.MaximofRelationnBerelevant.nD.MaximofMannernBeperspicuous,ands
46、pecifically:ni)avoidobscurityofexpression.nii)avoidambiguity.niii)bebrief(avoidprolixity).niv)beorderly.nToputitverysimply,theCPmeansthatweshouldsaywhatistrueinaclearandrelevantmanner.Weassumethatpeoplearenormallygoingtoprovideanappropriateamountofinformation,andthattheyaretellingthetruth,beingrelev
47、ant,andtryingtobeasclearastheycan.Speakersrarelymentiontheseprinciplessimplybecausetheyareassumedtacitlyinverbalinteractions.nTheCPisnotusedasrulesforpeopletofollowwhentheyspeak.Thetruthisthatitismeanttodescribewhatactuallyhappensinconversation.(Cf.p.192)nGricesbasicideaisthatincommunication,speaker
48、saimtofollowtheCPanditsmaxims,andthathearersinterpretutteranceswiththesemaximsinmind.nAccordingtoGrice,utteranceinterpretationisnotamatterofdecodingmessages,butratherinvolvesn(i)takingthemeaningofthesentencestogetherwithcontextualinformation,n(ii)usinginferencerules,andn(iii)workingoutwhatthespeaker
49、meansonthebasisoftheassumptionthattheutteranceconformstothemaxims.nThemainadvantageofthisapproachfromGricespointofviewisthatitprovidesapragmaticexplanationforawiderangeofphenomena,especiallyforconversational implicatures-akindofextrameaningthatisnotliterallycontainedintheutterance.nAccordingtoGrice,
50、conversationalimplicaturescanarisefromeitherstrictlyanddirectlyobservingordeliberatelyandopenlyfloutingthemaxims,thatis,speakerscanproduceimplicaturesintwoways:observanceandnon-observanceofthemaxims.nTheleastinterestingcaseiswhenspeakersdirectlyobservethemaximssoastogenerateconversationalimplicature