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1、I.Introduction第1页/共53页What is pragmatics?Pramatics can be defined as the study of language in use and linguistic communication.Why do we need pragmatics since we have grammatical analysis?第2页/共53页After we have done grammatical analysis of a sentence,there is still some aspect of meaning uncovered by
2、 our analysis.Example:The grammatical analysis of He went to town yesterday does not tell us who he is,which town or when yesterday.In other words,there are still things undetermined.第3页/共53页Depending on the context,he can be anybody,any male.Town can refer to any place big enough to be called town.
3、And yesterday can refer to any day in the past.As a result,the sentence must have performed many functions.第4页/共53页From this brief discussion,we can see that the context of a situation in which a sentence is used contribute a lot to its meaning which cannot be accounted for in pure grammatical analy
4、sis.第5页/共53页II.Context&Meaning第6页/共53页The notion of context is particularly significant in pragmatics because it contributes a lot to the meaning of an utterance.In a sense pragmatics studies how contextual features determine or influence the interpretation of utterances.第7页/共53页For example,there wi
5、ll be several possible interpretations to the utterance John is like a fish in isolation.But if it is said when John is swimming,it probably means John swims well.If it is said at a party,it will be taken to mean that John can drink a lot of wine,etc.第8页/共53页Lets look back into our Chinese,the conte
6、xt is also very important.Behold these dialogues:第9页/共53页“小明，帮我擦下窗户好么?“我擦!我不擦!”问：小明擦不擦窗户?第10页/共53页“小明，今晚上小明，今晚上全队去听讲座全队去听讲座!你你去不去去不去?”“我去我去!我不去我不去!”问：小明去不去问：小明去不去听讲座听讲座?第11页/共53页“小明，今天上小明，今天上书法课用不用带书法课用不用带笔啊笔啊?”“带毛笔啊带毛笔啊!”问：小明的意思问：小明的意思是带不带笔是带不带笔?第12页/共53页“小明，你的睫毛好小明，你的睫毛好漂亮，真的假的？漂亮，真的假的？”“假的假的。”“真的
7、么？真的么？”“真的真的”问：小明的睫毛是真问：小明的睫毛是真的假的？的假的？第13页/共53页客服小姐：“小明你是要几等座？”“你们一共有几等？”“特等，一等，二等，等等，二等要多等一等。”“我看下，等一等。”“别等了，再等一等也没了。”“那不等了就这个吧。”问：小明最终买了几等座？第14页/共53页领导：领导：“你这是什么意思你这是什么意思？”小明：小明：“没什么意思。意没什么意思。意思意思。思意思。”领导：领导：“你这就不够意思你这就不够意思了。了。”小明：小明：“小意思，小意思。小意思，小意思。”领导：领导：“你这人真有意思。你这人真有意思。”小明：小明：“其实也没有别的其实也没有别的
8、意思。意思。”领导：领导：“那我就不好意思那我就不好意思了。了。”小明：小明：“是我不好意思。是我不好意思。”问：以上问：以上“意思意思”分别是分别是什么意思什么意思？第15页/共53页Moreover,every language in the world has DEICTICS,which identify objects,persons and events in terms of their relations to the speaker in space and time.Much of the meaning of deictic terms depends on the sp
9、ecific context of situation in which they are used.第16页/共53页In English deictics may be grouped into 3 categories.1.person deictics:used to identify participants in the discourse.I and We are to refer to the speaker and you the hearer.The third person pronouns are used to refer to people other than p
10、articipants.第17页/共53页2.place deictics such as here and this to iindicate the spatial relations between the speaker and the referred object or place.Some verbs also denotes the spatial relations between the speaker,the hearer and the place designated,such as come/go and bring/take.第18页/共53页3.time dei
11、ctics used to indicate time relations such as now and then,yesterday,last night,next year.The characteristics of these terms are that their thorough interpretation is subject to their special context.It is possible to specify the time for then or now unless we know the exact time when the utterance
12、is made.第19页/共53页III.Speech act theory第20页/共53页Speech act theory is propose by John Langshaw Austin(1962)and John Searle(1969).第21页/共53页Basically they believe that language is not only used to inform or to describe things,it is often used to do things,to perform acts.All sentences,in addition to mea
13、ning whatever they mean,perform specific actions or doing things through having specific forces.Austin suggests 3 basic senses in which in saying something one is doing something,and 3 kinds of acts are performed simultaneously:第22页/共53页1)Locutionary Act:the utterance of a sentence with determinate
14、sense and reference;2)Illocutionary Act:the making of a statement,offer,promise,etc.in uttering a sentence,by virtue of the conventional force associated with it;3)Perlocutionary Act:the bringing about of effects on the audience by means of uttering the sentence,such effects being special to the cir
15、cumstances of utterance.第23页/共53页Example:Suppose the speaker says Its cold in here.Its locutionary act is the saying of it with its literal meaning its cold in here.Its illocutionary act can be a request of the hearer to shut the window and its perlocutionary act can be the hearers shutting the wind
16、ow or the refusal to comply with the request.第24页/共53页The locution of an utterance is actually its literal meaning.The illocution of an utterance is the speakers communicative intention or the function it is intended to perform.The perlocution of an utterance can be as the same as the illocution whe
17、n it is recognized and satisfied,or very different from it when it is not recognized or when it is ignored.For example,when the illocution is an invitation,the perlocution can either be an acceptance or a refusal,depending on social and personal factors.第25页/共53页a.Illocutionary acts第26页/共53页What spe
18、ech act theory is most concerned with is the illocutionary acts.It attempts to account for the ways by which speakers can mean more than what they say.It is also designed to show coherence in seemingly incoherent conversations.第27页/共53页Ex.A:Thats the phone.(1)B:Im in the bathroom.(2)A:Okay.(3)This s
19、eemingly unconnected conversation is very coherent on a speech-act level,and that in saying things people are in fact doing things.第28页/共53页b.Types of illocutionary acts第29页/共53页Searle suggests 5 basic categories of illocutionary acts as follows:Assertives（陈述）Directives （指令）Commissives（承诺）Expressive
20、s （表达）Declarations （宣布）第30页/共53页Assertives Sentences that commit the speaker to the truth of sth.Typical cases are I think the film is moving and Im certain that he had got it.The degree of commitment varies from statement to statement.The commitment is small in I guess hed got it but very strong in
21、 I solemnly swear that he had got it.第31页/共53页DirectivesSentences by which the speaker tries to get the hearer to do sth,I beg you to give me some advice and I order you to leave right now are both attempts to get something done by the hearer.Among the verbs that can denote this group are ask,reques
22、t,plead,entreat,command,advise,etc.第32页/共53页CommissivesSentences that commit the speaker to some future action.Promises and offers are characteristic of this group.Interestingly,warning is also a commissive,as If you smoke again Ill beat you to death,because it also commits the speaker to doing sth.
23、第33页/共53页ExpressivesSentences that express the speakers psychological state about sth.Verbs typically used for this category are thank,congratulate,apologize,welcome,deplore and so on.第34页/共53页DeclarationsSentences that bring about immediate change in the existing state of affairs.As soon as an empl
24、oyer says to an employee You are fired,the employee loses his/her job.Verbs often used for declarations are name,christen,nominate,point,declare,etc.第35页/共53页c.Indirect speech acts第36页/共53页One group of sentences which speech act theory is concerned with are those sentences that perform one illocutio
25、nary act indirectly by performing another,that is,INDIRECT SPEECH ACTS.第37页/共53页Can you pass the salt,please?is both a question about the hearers ability to pass the salt and a request of him to pass the salt.The problem here is how it is possible for the speaker to say one thing and mean something
26、else,and how it is possible for the hearer to understand the indirect speech act.It is suggested that in cases like this much is relied on the shared background information and the general powers of rationality and inference on the power of the hearer.第38页/共53页Ex.X:Lets go to the movies tonight.Y:I
27、have to study for an exam.In order to work out that Ys utterance is a refusal,X has to go through a process of inference like this.I have make a proposal to Y and a relevant response must be one of acceptance or rejection or further discussion.But his reply was none of these,so his illocution must b
28、e different from the literal meaning.I know that studying for an exam takes a lot of time and going to movies also takes a lot of time.He probably cannot do both in one evening.Probably his primary illocutionary act is to reject my proposal.第39页/共53页In practice,no one would consciously go through th
29、is process;but this is supposed to be in the way indirect sppech acts work.Requests are often performed indirectly.Their indirectness has certain characterstics that tend to group sentences of request into the following types:第40页/共53页Group 1Sentences concerning the hearers ability to do sth.:ex.Can
30、 you run another 5,000 meters?Could you run away from the talons of the chengguan?第41页/共53页Group 2Sentences concerning the speakers wish or want that the hearer will do sth.:I would like you to fetch my cellphone from the company.I would appreciate if you could save a seat for me.Id rather you didnt
31、 be late any more.Id be very much obliged if you would go to the Qixia Mountain with me.第42页/共53页Group 3Sentences concerning the hearers doing sth.:Would you kindly get off my foot?Wont you stop making that noise?第43页/共53页Group 4Sentences concerning the hearers desire or willingness to do sth.:Do yo
32、u want to go to the library with me now?Would it be convenient for you to come over to play Sanguosha,the boardgame on Friday afternoon?Would it be too much trouble for you to take my bag back?第44页/共53页Group 5Sentences concerning reasons for doing sth.:You should write to them every now and then.Mus
33、t you make that noise whenever you are reading?Youd better book the tickets 2 weeks in advance.第45页/共53页Sometimes we have sentences that have more than one of these elements,with one inside another:Would it be too much trouble if I suggested that you could possibly make a little less noise?第46页/共53页
34、d.Difficulties in speech act theory第47页/共53页Often an utterance does not perform only one act,but two or three acts,and it is not always easy to decide what act or acts an utterance performs.Ex.If a mother says to a child Is that your coat on the floor?第48页/共53页Sometimes two unrelated acts are perfor
35、med by one utterance and it is left to the hearer to choose.Ex:A:They say its the cleverest students who flunk.B:You should be O.K.then.reassurance&desire to make a joke第49页/共53页There are also cases when one utterance performs two different acts for different hearers.Ex:(Xiaoming is talking to Xiaof
36、ang on the telephone and there is a group of people making a lot of noise in the room)Xiaoming:Sorry,theres a lot of noise at this end.apology to Xiaofang(who accepts the apology)and reprimand the crowd(who apologize and stop making noise)第50页/共53页On other occasions,the speaker seems to have a chain
37、 of motives in a single utterance and the hearer has to make the decision of how to respond.Ex.Huaband:Its getting late,dear.Wife:(a)Its only 11:27,darling.(b)But Im having such fun.(c)Do you want to go?(d)Arent you enjoying yourself?第51页/共53页Thank you all for your attention!第52页/共53页感谢您的观看！第53页/共53页