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1、pragmatics(2)语用学topicsCooperative principle(CP)Neo-Gricean theoriesPost-Gricean developmentsThere are four maxims under this general principle:the maxim of quantity,quality,relation and manner.While conversation participants nearly always observe the CP,but they do not always observe these maxims.Th
2、ese maxims can be violated for various reasons,but when they are“flouted”,to use Grices term,does“conversational implicature”occur.Flouting a maxim means violating it blatantly,i.e.,both the speaker and the hearer are aware of the violation.When a speaker flouts a maxim,his language becomes indirect
3、.Four maxims of CPMaxim of Quantity:Make your contribution as informative as required(for the current purposes of the exchange).Do not make your contribution more informative than required.Maxim of Quality:Try to make your contribution one that true:Do not say what you believe to be false.Do not say
4、 something if you lack adequate evidenceFour maxims of CPMaxim of Relation:Make your contribution relevant Maxim of Manner:Be perspicuous,and specifically.-Avoid obscurity of expression-Avoid ambiguity-Be brief-Be orderlyCP is meant to describe what actually happens in conversation.People tend to be
5、 cooperative and say things which are true,relevant,as well as informative enough,and in a clear manner.but the imperatives in the CP are descriptive rather than prescriptive.Violation of the maximsHowever,CP,like unwritten laws,is regulative and can be violated.Except lying,people flout a maxim to
6、observe it in a further degree.Conversational implicature can only be induced in accordance to CP.Lies are not implicatures proper.Violation of the Quantity maximDear sir,Mr.Xs command of English is excellent,and his attendance at tutorials has been regular.Your,XXA:Where is X?B:Hes gone to the libr
7、ary.He said so when he left.Violation of the Quality maximHe is made of iron.You are the cream in my coffee.X runs as fast as a deer.She is probably deceiving him this evening.Violation of the relation maximA:X is an old bag.B:The weather has been quite delightful this autumn,hasnt it?Violation of t
8、he manner maximA:Lets get the kids something.B:Okay,but I veto I-C-E C-R-E-A-M-S.I sought to tell my love,love that never told can be.Miss X produces a series of sounds that correspond closely with the score of“Home,Sweet Home”.They had a baby and got married.Characteristics of implicatureCancellabi
9、lity/Defeasibility One element changes,the implication will also change.Non-detachability conversational implicature is attached to the semantic content of what is said,not to the linguistic form.Calculability Speakers try to convey conversational implicatures and hearer are able to understand them.
10、Non-conventionality after knowing the meaning of the words,one can get the implicatures in the context.Indeterminacy a word which has a single meaning has different implicatures in different situations.Cancellability/Defeasibilitye.g.John has three cows.Implicatures can be cancelled:a)Plus“if clause
11、”b)In some contextNon-detachabilityJohn is a genius(a mental prodigy;an enormous intellect;a big brain;an exceptionally clever human being).John is an idiot.Depends on the content of semantics not the form of language.CalculabilityAccording to the CPNon-conventionalityThe true-false question of the
12、sentence cannot influence its implicature.And it is true to the otherwise.Implicature will change with the context but not with the true-false of the sentence.It is cold here.IndeterminacyJohn is a machine.A:I really dislike that man you introduced to me.B:He is your new boss.summaryConversational i
13、mplicature as a type of implied meaning,which is deduced on the basis of the conventional meaning of words together with the context,under the guidance of the CP and its maxims.Implicature is comparable to illocutionary force in speech act theory in that they are both concerned with the contextual s
14、ide of meaning.The distinction is that the implicature is with no“force”of acts,while illocutionary force is.Neo-Gricean theoriesLevinsons Q-,I-and M-principles.Grices CP has its own shortages.Some linguists repair and has his own theory.Levinsons Q-,I-and M-principlesStephen Levinson1987Paper:pragm
15、atics and the grammar of anaphor:a partial pragmatic reduction of binding and control phenomena.Levinsons Q-principlesA)speakers maxim do not provide a statement that is informationally weaker than your knowledge of the world allows,unless providing a stronger statement would contravene the I-princi
16、ple;B)recipients corollary believe that the speaker made the strongest statement consistent with what he knows.【All some】All of them are students.Some of them are students.Levinsons I-principlesA)speakers maxim the maxim of minimization,i.e.say as little as necessary,or produce the minimal linguisti
17、c information sufficient to achieve your communicational ends;B)recipients corollary amplify the informational content of the speakers utterance,by finding the most SPECIFIC interpretation up to the speakers intended point.John and his wife bought a new car.-They bought only one car,not one each.Joh
18、n said something to the nurse.-John said something to a female nurse.Levinsons M-principlesA)speakers maxim do not use a prolix,obscure or marked expression without reasonB)recipients corollary if the speaker used a prolix or marked expression M,he did not mean the same as he would have had used the
19、 unmarked expression U-specifically he was trying to avoid the stereotypical associations and I-implicatures of U.John opened the door.John caused the door to open.Post-Gricean developmentsRelevance theory Dan Sperber and Deirdre Wilson 1986 Relevance:Communication and Cognition All Gricean maxims,i
20、ncluding the CP itself,should be reduced to a single principle of relevance,“every act of ostensive communication communicates the presumption of its own optimal relevance.”discussionWhich maxim(s)does speaker B seem to violate?And what implicature can arise out of this answer?1)A:Whats the price of
21、 your shirt?2)B:The pattern is nice.3)2)A:Is he a good teacher?4)B:He is a very handsome bachelor.5)3)A:Lets dine out with the kids this weekend.6)B:Okey,but not M-C-D-O-N-A-L-D-S.4、-What will you do if you fail the exam?-I will eat my hat.5、-Do you know when John left the pub last night?-Eleven ocl
22、ock.And he went to Marys apartment instead of his own.6、-Did you enjoy the play?-Well,I thought the icecream they sold in the interval were quite good.7、-What did your sister buy at Sears yesterday?-She bought a red dress,she bought a green dress,and she bought a blue dress.In the following sentence
23、s,the second part cancels some information given by the first part.However,this seems to result in quite acceptable utterance in group(1)and in very awkward utterance in group(2).Explain why.group(1)a.老张有三个孩子，其实还不止三个。b.我只喜欢黄色和蓝色，不过试试红色也未尝不可。c.约翰的普通话说得还可以，确切地说是非常棒。group(2)e.我特后悔选修了这门课，其实我没有选修这门课。f.他这
24、次考试又不及格，不过他上次及格了。g.我在乡下日子过得很苦，说真的我没有在乡下呆过。What are the sameness and the difference between the following five sentences?1)Will John leave the room?2)John will leave the room?3)John,leave the room.4)Would that John left the room?5)If John leaves the room,I will leave also.此此课件下件下载可自行可自行编辑修改，修改，仅供参考！供参考！感感谢您的支持，我您的支持，我们努力做得更好！努力做得更好！谢谢!