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1、精选学习资料 - - - - - - - - - 读书之法 ,在循序而渐进 ,熟读而精思English Lexicology: A CoursebookChapter 1 Lexicology and Words Knowledge Points: 1. Lexicology is the study of the vocabulary or lexicon of a given language. 2. Morphology is the study of the forms of words and their components. 3. The major purpose of stu
2、dy in morphology is to look at morphemes and their arrangements in word formation. 4. Morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit of language. Morphemes may constitute words or parts of words. 5. Semantics is defined as the study of meaning. 6. Generally speaking, semantics focuses on: 1 the meaning of
3、 words; 2 the meaning of utterances in context; 3 the meaning of sentences; 4 meaning relations between sentences; 5 meaning relations that are internal to the vocabulary of a language. 7. Etymology is the study of the whole history of words. 8. Word is used traditionally to refer to a sequence of l
4、etters bounded by spaces. 9. The term word is also used to refer to an intermediate structure smaller than a whole phrase and yet generally larger than a single sound segment. 10. Major features of Words 1 A word is a sound or combination of sounds which we make voluntarily with our vocal equipment.
5、 2 A word is symbolic and is used to stand for something else. 3 The word is an uninterruptible unit. 4 A word has to do with its social function. 5 A word may consist of one or more morphemes. 6 Words are part of the large communication system we call language. 7 A word occurs typically in the stru
6、cture of phrases. 11. In traditional grammar, eight parts of speech are distinguished in English: noun, pronoun, adjective, verb, adverb, preposition, conjunction, and interjection. 12. Words can also be classified into lexical words and grammatical words. 13. Generally speaking, lexical words are n
7、ouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs. 14. The lexical words can be used functions: 1 to represent our experience of the word; 2 to refer to persons, places, things and concepts e.g. the nouns Smith, London, pineapple, unity ; 3 to describe qualities and properties e.g. the adjectives excellent, kind
8、, high ; 4 to represent actions, processes or states e.g. the verbs jump, bite, stay; 5 to describe circumstances like manner e.g. the adverbs kindly, slowly, cheerfully. Furthermore, lexical words have their own content meanings and may be meaningful when used alone. E.g. book and house have their
9、own content meanings. 15. Grammatical words are words like pronouns, prepositions, demonstrative, determiners, conjunctions, auxiliary verbs, and son on. 16. Semantic or lexical field: A semantic field contains words that belong to defined area of meaning. Crystal 1995 defines a semantic field as a
10、named area of meaning in which lexemes interrelated and define each other in specific ways . Chapter 2 Some Basic Concepts and Word Meanings Knowledge Points: 1. Morphemes are the ultimate grammatical constituents, the smallest meaningful units of language. 2. Features of morpheme: 1 A morpheme may
11、be a complete word. E.g. the, fierce, desk, eat, boot, at, fee, mosquito cannot be divided 名师归纳总结 - - - - - - -第 1 页,共 13 页精选学习资料 - - - - - - - - - 读书之法 ,在循序而渐进 ,熟读而精思up into smaller units that are meaningful themselves. 2 A morpheme may also be a word form such as an affix. e.g. able, in-, -hood .
12、3 A morpheme may be a combining form. e.g. bio-, geo, pre- . 3. Phonemes are the smallest working units of sound per se, and they build up into morphemes. 4. Lexeme: Lexeme or lexical item is regarded as a unit of lexical meaning, which exists regardless of any inflectional endings it may have or th
13、e number of words it may contain. Lexeme is considered an abstract linguistic unit with different variants e.g. sing as against sang, sung. 5. Morph: Any concrete realization of a morpheme in a given utterance is called a morph. It is a physical form representing some morphemes in a language. 6. All
14、omorphs: Morphs which are different representations of the same morpheme are referred to as allomorphs of that morpheme. 7. Morphemes can be classified into bound morphemes and free morphemes. 8. Bound morphemes must be joined to other morphemes. e.g. the suffix dom, is a bound morpheme. 9. Free mor
15、phemes need not be attached to other morphemes and can occur by themselves as individual words. e.g. cat, chair, farm, and bug are free morpheme. 10. Morphemes may also be classified into derivational morphemes and inflectional morphemes. 11. Denotation: Denotation of a lexeme is the relationship th
16、at holds between that lexeme and persons, things, places, properties, processes and activities external to the language system. 12. Reference: The relationship of reference holds between an expression and what that expression stands for on particular occasions of its utterance. 13. Sense: Sense is a
17、 relationship between the words or expressions of a single language, independently of the relationship, if any, which holds between those words or expressions and their referents. 14. Leech 1981 distinguishes seven types of meaning in language: conceptual meaning, connotative meaning, social meaning
18、, affective meaning, reflected meaning, collocative meaning, and thematic meaning. 15. Conceptual meaning, which is sometimes called denotative or cognitive meaning, refers to meanings as presented in a dictionary. 16. Connotative meaning is the communicative value of an expression by virtue of what
19、 it refers to, over and above its purely conceptual content. 17. Social meaning refers to the kind of meaning a piece of language conveys about the social circumstances of its use. 18. Affective meaning can be used to cover the attitudinal and emotional factors expressed in a word. 19. Reflected mea
20、ning is the meaning which arises in cases of multiple conceptual meaning, when one sense of a word forms part of our response to another sense. 20. Collocative meaning consists of the associations a word acquires on account of the meanings of words which tend to occur in its environment. 21. Themati
21、c meaning is what communicated by the way in which a speaker or writer organizes the massage, in terms of ordering, focus, and emphasis. 22. Stem: The word to which affixes are added and which carries the basic meaning of the resulting complex word is known as the stem. 23. Root: A stem consisting o
22、f a single morpheme is labeled as root. For, example, walk is a root and it appears in the set of word-forms that instantiate the lexeme walk such as walk, walks, walking and walked.24. Free morpheme: Roots which are capable of standing independently are called free morphemes. Single words like man,
23、 book, tea, sweet, cook are the smallest free morphemes capable of occurring independently. 25. Bound morpheme: some roots are incapable of occurring independently. They always occur with some other word-building element attached to them. Such roots are called bound morphemes, like mit in permit, re
24、mit, commit, admit, and ceive in perceive, receive, conceive. 26. Base: A base is a lexical item to which affixes of any kind can be added. The affixes attached to a base. In other words, all roots are bases. 27. Affix: A root or stem can be attached with an affix. Affixes are morphemes which only o
25、ccur when attached to other morphemes. By definition affixes are bound morphemes. 名师归纳总结 - - - - - - -第 2 页,共 13 页精选学习资料 - - - - - - - - - 读书之法 ,在循序而渐进 ,熟读而精思28. Three types of affixes: prefix, suffix and infix. 1 prefix: A prefix is an affix attached before a root or stem or base like in-decent. re
26、-, un- and in-, as in re-make, un-kind, 2 suffix: A suffix is an affix attached after a root or stem or base like -ly, -er, -ist, and -ed, as in kind-ly, wait-er, interest-ing, interest-ed.3 infix: An infix is an affix inserted into the root itself. According to Katamba 1993, infixes are very common
27、 in semitic language like Arabic and Hebrew. 29. Other types of affixes: inflectional affixes and derivational affixes. 1 Inflectional affixes are used for syntactic reasons to indicate number, tense, case, and so on. 2 derivational affixes can alter the meaning or grammatical category of the base.
28、30. Polysemy: Polysemy refers to the situation in which a word has two or more different meanings. For instance, the noun bank is said to be polysemous because it may mean: 1 a financial institution that people or businesses can keep their money in or borrow money from; 2 a raised area of land along
29、 the side of a river; 3 a large number of things in a row, especially pieces of equipment. 31. Features of polysemy: 1 The concept of polysemy is complex and involves a certain number of problems. As mentioned by Jackson and Amvela 2000, we cannot determine exactly how many meanings a polysemous wor
30、d has, as a word may have both a literal meaning and one or more transferred meanings. 2 The is no clear criterion for either difference or sameness of meaning. 3 It difficult to distinguish between polysemy i.e. one word with several meanings and homonymy i. e. several words with the same shapespel
31、ling and/or pronunciation. 4 Polysemy is an essential condition for its efficiency. 32. Homonymy: Homonymy refers to a situation in which there are two or more words with the same shape. 33. Tow types of homonyms Jackson and Amvela, 2000: homograph and homophone 1 homograph: Homograph refers to a wo
32、rd which is spelt the same as another word but has a different meaning and sometimes a different pronunciation. For example, pronounced differently. lead metal and lead dogs lead are spelt the same but 2 homophone: Homophone refers to a word that sounds the same as another word but ahs its own spell
33、ing, meaning and origin. For example, right, rite and write are spelt differently but pronounced the same. 34. Features of homonymy: 1 There are cases in which two homonyms with totally different meanings may both make sense in the same utterance. 2 Spelling will often help to differentiate between
34、words with are identical in sound. 3 Writing conventions can help remove homonymy, as English writing is more intelligible than speech. Chapter 3 The Origins of English Words Knowledge Points: 1. The Development of English: Indo-European Family Italic Germanic Europe the Near East North India the No
35、rth Germanic the East Germanic the West Germanic branch branch branch English English belongs to the Indo-European family, which includes most of the languages of Europe, the Near east, 名师归纳总结 - - - - - - -第 3 页,共 13 页精选学习资料 - - - - - - - - - 读书之法 ,在循序而渐进 ,熟读而精思and North India. One branch of the Ind
36、o-European family is called Italic, from which Latin and later the Romance languages developed. Another is called Germanic, which is subdivided into the North Germanic branch, the Ease Germanic branch and the West Germanic branch. English is one of the languages in the West Germanic branch. Celts ar
37、e believed to be the first people who, inhabited the land that was later to become England. They came to the island around the middle of the fifth millennium BC. Their languages were yet another branch of the Indo-European language family. Most of the island of Britain was occupied by the Romans fro
38、m about 43 AD until 410 AD. Two stages: First Stage Beginning of English: After the withdrawal of the Romans, the Angles, Saxons, and Jutes moved into England in about 450 AD and began to take it over. It is at this time when the English language began. Second Stage: By the 10 th century, the West S
39、axon dialect became the official language of Britain. Written Old English is mainly known from this period. It was written in an alphabet called Runic 北欧古文字 . 2. The four historical periods of English: 1 The language from 450 to 1066 is known as Old English. 2 From 1066 to 1500 the language is known
40、 as Middle English. 3 The language from 1500 to 1800 is considered the Early Modern English period. 4 The language since 1800 is called Modern English. 3. Old English Period 450-1066. There are many differences between the way vocabulary was used in Old English and the way it is used today. 1 the An
41、glo-Saxon preference for expressions that are synonymous, far exceeds that found in Modern English, as does their ingenuity in the construction of compounds. 2 the absence of a wide-ranging vocabulary of loanwords also forces them to rely more on word-formation processes based on native elements. 3
42、the latter period of Old English was characterized by the introduction of a number of loan translations . 4 grammatical relationships in Old English were expressed mainly by the use of inflectional endings. 5 Old English is believed to contain about 24,000 different lexical items. 4. The Middle Engl
43、ish Period 1066-1500. The Middle English period was marked by extensive changes. In 1066 the Normans conquered Britain. 5. Features of this period: 1 The changes of this period affected English both in its grammar and its vocabulary. 2 Inflections were greatly reduced in Middle English. 3 The inflec
44、tional endings was due partly to phonetic changes and partly to the operation of analogy. 4 Middle English is particularly characterized by intensive and extensive borrowing from other languages. 6. Early Modern English Period 1500-1800. This period is the transitional period from Middle English to
45、Modern English. 1 The printing press helped to standardize the spelling of English in its modern stages. 2 Throughout the modern period, written English has been quite uniform. 3 In the sixteenth century, scholars began seriously to talk about their language, making observations on grammar vocabular
46、y, the writing system and style. 4 Adjectives lost all endings except for in the comparative and superlative forms. 7. The Modern English Period 1800-present. Features of this period: 1 Modern English is as the unprecedented growth of scientific vocabulary. 2 The assertion of American English is as
47、a dominant variety of the language. 3 The emergence of other varieties known as New Englishes . 8. New Englishes refers to new varieties of the language that have become localized not only through the influence of the other languages of the regions where they are used, but also through being adapted to the life and culture of their speakers. 9. The differences between American English and British English: 1 The differences of vocabulary are the most striking; 名师归纳总结 - - - - - - -第 4 页,共 13 页精选学习资料 - - - - - - - - - 读书之法 ,在循序而渐进 ,熟读而精思2 American spelling and British are also a bi