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1、English Lexicology(English Lexicology(英语词汇学英语词汇学) )LexicologyLexicology（词汇学）（词汇学）: is a branch of linguistics, inquiring into the origins and meanings of words.The Nature and Scope of English lexicologyThe Nature and Scope of English lexicology：English lexicology aims at investigating and studying t
2、he morphological structures of English words and wordequivalents, their semantic structures, relations, historical development, formation and usages.The subjects that English Lexicology correlated with and extent toThe subjects that English Lexicology correlated with and extent to ：English Lexicolog
3、y is correlated with such linguistic disciplines as morphology( 形态学), semantics(语义学),etymology(词源学),stylistics（文体论） andlexicography(词典学)The reason for a student to study English lexicologyThe reason for a student to study English lexicology：According to the textbook, English Lexicology will definite
4、ly be beneficial for students of English.A good knowledge of morphological structures of English words and rules of word-formation will help learnersdevelop their personal vocabulary and consciously increase their word power. The information of the historicaldevelopment and the principles of classif
5、ication will give them a deeper understanding of word-meaning andenable them to organize, classify and store words more effectively. The understanding and their sense relationswill gradually raise their awareness of meaning and usage, and enable them use words more accurately andappropriately. A wor
6、king knowledge of dictionaries will improve their skills of using reference books and raisetheir problem-solving ability and efficiency of individual study.Chapter 1-Basic concepts of words and vocabularyChapter 1-Basic concepts of words and vocabularyWordWord（词的定义）（词的定义）: : A word is a minimal free
7、 form of a language that has a given sound and meaning andsyntactic function. (1)a minimal free form of a language (2)a sound unity (3)a unit of meaning (4)a form that canfunction alone in a sentenceSound and meaningSound and meaning（声音与意义）（声音与意义）: almost arbitrary, “no logical relationship between
8、the sound which standsfor a thing or an idea and the actual thing and idea itself”Sound and formSound and form（读音和形式）（读音和形式）:不统一的四个原因（1）the English alphabet was adopted from theRomans,which does not have a separate letter to represent each other（2） the pronunciation has changedmore rapidly than spel
9、ling over the years （3） some of the difference were creates by the early scribes （4）the borrowings is an important channel of enriching the English vocabularyVocabularyVocabulary（词汇）（词汇）: all the words in a language make up its vocabularyClassification of English WordsClassification of English Words
10、：By use frequency:basic word stock&nonbasic vocabularyBy use frequency:basic word stock&nonbasic vocabularyBy notion:content words&functional wordsBy notion:content words&functional wordsBy origin:native words&borrowed wordsBy origin:native words&borrowed wordsThe basic word stockThe basic word stoc
11、k（基本词汇）（基本词汇）: is the foundation of the vocabulary accumulated over centuries and formsthe common core of the language. Though it constitute a small percentage of the EV, it is the most importantpart of vocabulary.The Fundamental Features of the Basic Word Stock(The Fundamental Features of the Basic
12、 Word Stock( 基本词汇的特征基本词汇的特征) ):1)All-National character（全民通用性 most important）2)Stability（相对稳定性）3)Productivity（多产性）4)Polysemy（多义性）5)Collocability（可搭配性）没有上述特征的没有上述特征的 words:words:(1)Terminology(术语)(2)Jargon（行话） (3)slang（俚语） (4)Argot（暗语） （5）Dialectal words(方言) (6) Archaisms （古语）(7) Neologisms （新词语） :Ne
13、ologisms means newly-created wordsor expressions, or words that have taken on new meanings.(email)Content words/notional wordsContent words/notional words实词实词( (cloud, run walk, never, five, frequently ) and functional words/empty) and functional words/emptywordswords 虚词虚词( (on, of, and, be, but) )N
14、ative Words and Borrowed WordsNative Words and Borrowed WordsNative wordsNative words（本族语词）（本族语词）: known as Anglo-Saxon words (50,000-60,000), are words brought to Britain in the5th century by the Germanic tribes. (mainstream of the basic word-stocks).Two other features:(1)neutral instyle (2)frequen
15、t in useBorrowed words/Loan wordsBorrowed words/Loan words（外来语词）（外来语词）: words taken over from foreign languages.(80% of modern EV)4 Types of loan words:4 Types of loan words:1) denizens(同化词): (shirt from skyrta(ON)2) aliens （非同化词/外来词） :are borrowed words which have retained their original pronunciat
16、ion and spelling(kowtow (CH)磕头)3) translation loans(译借词):按其他语言方式组成英语 long time no see (from China)4) semantic loans（借义词） ：they are not borrowed with reference to the form,but their meanings areborrowedChapter 2 the development of the English VocabularyChapter 2 the development of the English Vocabul
17、aryThe Indo-European Language Family(The Indo-European Language Family(印欧语系印欧语系) )The Eight Groups in Indo-European Family of Languages（8 大印欧语群）The Eastern set:（1）The Balto-slavic Group（波罗的-斯拉夫语族） ：Russian,Bulgarian,Polish,Czech etc.（2）The Indo-Iranian Group（印度-伊朗语族） ：Hindi,Bengali,Persian etc.(3)Th
18、e Armenian Group（亚美尼亚语族） ：Armenian.(4)The Albanian Group（阿尔巴尼亚语族） ：Albanian.The Western set:(5)The Hellenic Group（古希腊语族） ：Greek.(6)The Italian Group（意大利语族） ：Latin ,Romance languages(French,Italian,Spanish, portuguese,Romanian)etc.(7)The Celtic Group（凯尔特语族） ：Irish,Welsh,Breton etc.(8)The Germanic Gro
19、up（日耳曼语族） ：Flemish,German,Dutch,Scandinavian(Norweigian, Swedish,Danish,Icelandic) etc.The Three Stages of Development of the English Vocabulary:The Three Stages of Development of the English Vocabulary:1 Old English (450-1100) (vocabulary 50,000 to 60,000):was I high inflected language.2 Middle Eng
20、lish (1150-1500):retaines much fewer inflections3 Modern English (1500-up to now): in fact more than 25% of modern E words come almost directly fromclassical languages. In Modern E, words endings were mostly lost with just a few expections.English has evolvedfrom a synthetic language(Old English) to
21、 the present analytic language.Modes of Vocabulary Development(Modes of Vocabulary Development(词汇的发展模式词汇的发展模式): ):1)creation 创造新词：the formation of new words by using the existingmaterials,namely toots,affixes andother elements.(最重要方式)2)semantic change旧词新义 :does not increase the number of word forms
22、but create many more new useagesof the words.3) borrowing 借用外来词:constitute merely 6 to 7 percent of all new wordsReviving words or obsolete words also contributes to the growth of English vocabulary though quiteinsignificant.Chapter 3 Word Formation IChapter 3 Word Formation IMorpheme(Morpheme(词素词素)
23、 ):the smallest functioning unit in the composition of wordsAllomorph(Allomorph(词素变体词素变体) ): is a different variant form of a morpheme，differ in phonological and spelling form, butat the same in function and meaningType of Morpheme(Type of Morpheme(词素的分类词素的分类) )（1） Free Morphemes （自由词素） : have compl
24、ete meaning in themselves and can be used as free grammaticalunits in sentences. A free morpheme is one that can stand by itself. (independent).（2）Bound Morpheme(粘着语素): A bound morpheme is one that cannot stand by itself.Bound Morpheme includes two types: (1) bound root(粘附词根)(2)Affix(词缀)Affixes can
25、be put into two groups:1)Inflectional affixes (屈折词缀):affixes attached to the end of words to indicate grammatical relationships areinflectional,thus known as inflectional morphemes.2)Derivational affixes(派生词缀): A) prefix: A prefix comes before words. B)suffix:An adjective suffix （形容词后缀） that is adde
26、d to the stem, whatever class is belongs to , the result will be an adjective.Free Morpheme =free root（自由词根）Morpheme(词素)Bound rootprefixboundderivationalaffixsuffixinflectionalRoot and stemRoot and stem（词根和词干）（词根和词干）The differences between root and stem:A root is the basic form of a word which canno
27、t be further analyzed without total loss of identity.A stem is the surplus part after the cutting of inflectional morpheme in a word with inflectional morphemes,canbe further analyzed, it sometimes could be a root.Chapter 4 Word-Formation II(Chapter 4 Word-Formation II(构词法构词法) )1.Affixation1.Affixat
28、ion 词缀法词缀法（Derivation 派生法） ：the formation of words by adding word-formaing or derivationalaffixes to stem.（1）Prefixation(前缀法)：Its the formation of new words by adding a prefixes to stems.1)Negative prefixes(否定前缀): un-,non-,in-,dis,a- ,il-,ir-,im-,etc.disobey(not obey)2)Reversative prefixes（逆反前缀）: un
29、-,de-，dis- etc. unwrap(open)3) Pejorative prefixes: mis（贬义前缀） ：mis-， mal-, pseudo- etc.misconduct(bad behaviour)4) Prefixes of degree or size(程度前缀)：arch-,extra-,hyper-,macro-,micro-,mini-,out-,over-,sub-,super-,sur-,ultra-,under-,ect. overweight5) Prefixes of orientation and attitude（倾向态度前缀）:contra-
30、,counter-,anti-,pro- etc.anti-nuclear6)Locative prefixes（方位前缀）:extra-,fore-,inter-,intra-,tele-,trans-, etc. extraordinary(more than ordinary)7) Prefixes of time and order（时间和顺序前缀）:fore-,pre-,post-,ex-,re- etc. monorail(one rail)8) Number prefixes （数字前缀） :uni-，mono-, bi-，di-, tri-,multi-，poly- ，semi
31、-，etc.bilingual(concerning twolanguages)9) Miscellaneous prefixes（混杂前缀） ：auto-, neo-, pan-, vice-.vice-chairman(deputy chairman)(2)Suffixation（后缀法）: Its the formation of a new word by adding suffixes to stems.1)noun suffixes2)adjective suffixes3)Adverb suffixes4)verb suffixes2.Compounding2.Compoundi
32、ng 复合法复合法（also called compositionalso called composition）Compounding: is the formation of new words by joining two or more stemsCompounds are written in three ways: solid连写(airmail)，hyphenated带连字符(air-conditioning)and open分开写(air force, air raid)Formation of compounds（复合词的形式）（1）noun compounds ：e.g.
33、: air + plane = airplane,flower + pot = flower pot（2）adjective compounds ： e.g.acid + head = acid-head（3）verb compounds ： e.g.house + keep = housekeep3.Conversion3.Conversion转类法转类法Conversion: is the formation of new words by converting words of one class to another class. （功能转换，又叫零派生.functional shif
34、t/zero-derivation）4.Blending4.Blending 拼缀法拼缀法Blending : is the formation of new words by combining parts of two words or a word plus a part of anotherword. e.g: motor + hotel = motel, smoke + fog = smog, formula + translation = FORTRAN5.Clipping5.Clipping 截短法截短法四种形式：1).Front clippings删节前面 (phone fro
35、m telephone)2).Back clippings 删节后面 (dorm from dormitory)3).Front and back clippings 前后删节(flu from influenza)4).Phrase clippings 短语删节(pop from popular music)6.Acronymy6.Acronymy首字母缩写法首字母缩写法Acronymy:is the process of forming new words by joining the initial letters of names of social and politicalorga
36、nizations or special noun phrases and technical terms.（1）Initialism（首字母缩写词法）: initialisms are words pronounced letter by letter. e.g.: BBC(for BritishBroadcasting corporation)（2）Acronym（首字母拼音法）:Acronyms are words formed from initial letters but pronounced as a normalword. E.g.:TEFL(teaching English
37、as a foreign language)7.Back-formation7.Back-formation（逆生法，逆构词）（逆生法，逆构词）Back-formation is considered to be the opposite process of suffixation. Its the method of creating words byremoving the supposed suffixes. (greed from greedy)8.Words From Proper Name(8.Words From Proper Name(专有名词转成法专有名词转成法): ):N
38、ames of people, places, book, and tradenames (e.g.: sir watt siemens(人名) - watt（瓦特，电功率单位）Chapter 5 Word MeaningChapter 5 Word MeaningThe meanings of “Meaning”The meanings of “Meaning” (“意义”的意义)ReferenceReference(所指):It is the relationship between language and the word. It is the arbitrary and conven
39、tional. It isa kind of abstraction, yet with the help of context, it can refer to something specific.ConceptConcept （概念） :which is beyond language, is the result of human cognition(认识),reflecting the objective worldin the human mind.SenseSense （意义） :It denotes the relationship inside the language. T
40、he sense of an expression is its place in a systemof semantic relationships with other expressions in the language.MotivationMotivation(理据)：It accounts for the connection between the linguistic symbol and its meaning.1) Onomatopoeic motivation（拟声理据）:words whose sounds suggest their meaning, for thes
41、e words werecreates by imitating the natural sounds or noises. Knowing the sounds of the words means understanding themeaning. E.g.: bang, ping-pong, ha ha.2)Morphological motivation （形态理据） :multi-morphemic words and the meaning of many are the sum totalof the morphemes combines. E.g.: airmail, mini
42、skirt .例外：black market, ect.3)Semantic motivation（词义理据） ：refers to the mental associations suggested by the conceptual meaning ofa word. It explains the connection between the literal sense and figurative sense of the word. E.g:the foot ofthe mountain(foot)4)Etymological motivation （词源理据）:the histor
43、y of the word explains the meaning of the word.E.g:pen-featherTypes of meaning(Types of meaning(词义的类别词义的类别) )1.Grammatical Meaning（语法意义）:indicates the grammatical concept or relationships (becomes importantonly in actual context)2.Lexical Meaning （词汇意义）(Lexical meaning and grammatical meaning make u
44、p the word-meaning)Lexical meaning has 2 components内容: Conceptual meaning(概念意义) and associative meaning(关联意义)1）Conceptual meaning(概念意义): also known as denotative meaning(外延意义) is the meaning given in thedictionary and forms the core of word-meaning.2）Associative meaning(关联意义):is the secondary meanin
45、g supplemented to the conceptual meaning.4types:（1）Connotative（内涵意义） ：the overtones or associations suggested by the conceptual meaning,traditionally known as connotations.(例如“母亲”经常与“爱”“关心”“温柔”联系起来)（2）Stylistic（文体意义） ：many words have stylistic features, which make them appropriate for differentconte
46、xts.（3）Affective（感情意义） ：indicates the speakers attitude towards the person or thing in question. 这种情感价值观分两类：褒义和贬义appreciative & pejorative（4）Collocative（搭配意义） ：is the part of the word-meaning suggested by the words before or after theword in discussion.Chapter 6 -Sense relation and semantic fieldCha
47、pter 6 -Sense relation and semantic field （语义关系和语义场）PolysemyPolysemy（多义关系）Two approached to polysemy（多义关系的两种研究方法）:1.diachronic approach(历时方法) ：from the diachronic point of view, polysemy is assumed to be the result ofgrowth and development of the semantic structure of one and same word. First meanin
48、g is the primarymeaning , the later meanings are called derived meanings.2. synchronic approach (共时方法) : synchronically, polysemy is viewed as the coexistence of various meaningsof the same word in a certain historical period of time.基本意义是 central meaning , 次要意义是 derivedmeaning.Two processes of deve
49、lopment（词义的两种发展类型）:1.radiation（辐射型） ：is a semantic process in which the primary meaning stands at the centre and thesecondary meanings proceed out of it in every direction like rayes. (e.g: face, neck)2.concatenation （连锁型） :is the semantic process in which the meaning of a word move gradually away f
50、romits first sense by successive shifts until there is not a sign of connection between the sense that is finallydeveloped and that which the term had at the beginning.(e.g:treacle)3.In radiation, each of the derived meaning is directly connected to the primary meaning. In concatenation,each of the