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1、 English Lexicology(英语词汇学)Lexicology（词汇学）: is a branch of linguistics, inquiring into the origins and meanings of words.The Nature and Scope of English lexicology：English lexicology aims at investigating and studying the morphological structures of English words and wordequivalents, their semantic s
2、tructures, relations, historical development, formation and usages.The subjects that English Lexicology correlated with and extent t o：English Lexicology is correlated with such linguistic disciplines as morphology(形态学), semantics(语义学),etymology(词源学),stylistics（文体论） and lexicography(词典学)The reason f
3、or a student to study English lexicology：According to the textbook, English Lexicology will definitely be beneficial for students of English.A good knowledge of morphological structures of English words and rules of word-formation will help learnersdevelop their personal vocabulary and consciously i
4、ncrease their word power. The information of the historicaldevelopment and the principles of classification will give them a deeper understanding of word-meaning andenable them to organize, classify and store words more effectively. The understanding and their sense relationswill gradually raise the
5、ir awareness of meaning and usage, and enable them use words more accurately andappropriately. A working knowledge of dictionaries will improve their skills of using reference books and raisetheir problem-solving ability and efficiency of individual study.Chapter 1-Basic concepts of words and vocabu
6、laryWord（词的定义）: A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning andsyntactic function. (1)a minimal free form of a language (2)a sound unity (3)a unit of meaning (4)a form that canfunction alone in a sentenceSound and meaning（声音与意义）: almost arbitrary, “no logical relat
7、ionship between the sound which standsfor a thing or an idea and the actual thing and idea itself”Sound and form（读音和形式）:不统一的四个原因（1）the English alphabet was adopted from theRomans,which does not have a separate letter to represent each other（2）the pronunciation has changedmore rapidly than spelling o
8、ver the year（s 3）some of the difference were creates by the early scribe（s 4）the borrowings is an important channel of enriching the English vocabularyVocabulary（词汇）: all the words in a language make up its vocabularyClassification of English Words：By use frequency:basic word stock&nonbasic vocabula
9、ryBy notion:content words&functional wordsBy origin:native words&borrowed wordsThe basic word stock（基本词汇）: is the foundation of the vocabulary accumulated over centuries and formsthe common core of the language. Though it constitute a small percentage of the EV, it is the most importantpart of vocab
10、ulary.The Fundamental Features of the Basic Word Stock(基本词汇的特征):1)All-National character（全民通用性 most important） 2)Stability（相对稳定性）3)Productivity（多产性） 4)Polysemy（多义性） 5)Collocability（可搭配性）没有上述特征的 words:(1)Terminology(术语) (2)Jargon（行话） (3)slang（俚语） (4)Argot（暗语） （5）Dialectal words(方言) (6) Archaisms（古语）(
11、7) Neologisms（新词语）:Neologisms means newly-created wordsor expressions, or words that have taken on new meanings.(email)Content words/notional words实词(cloud, run walk, never, five, frequently) and functional words/emptywords 虚词(on, of, and, be, but)Native Words and Borrowed WordsNative words（本族语词）: k
12、nown as Anglo-Saxon words (50,000-60,000), are words brought to Britain in the5th century by the Germanic tribes. (mainstream of the basic word-stocks).Two other features:(1)neutral instyle (2)frequent in useBorrowed words/Loan words（外来语词）: words taken over from foreign languages.(80% of modern EV)4
13、 Types of loan words: 1) denizens(同化词): (shirt from skyrta(ON)2) alien（s 非同化词/外来词）:are borrowed words which have retained their original pronunciation and spelling(kowtow (CH)磕头)3) translation loans(译借词):按其他语言方式组成英语 long time no see (from China)4) semantic loans（借义词）：they are not borrowed with refer
14、ence to the form,but their meanings areborrowedChapter 2 the development of the English VocabularyThe Indo-European Language Family(印欧语系)The Eight Groups in Indo-European Family of Languages（8 大印欧语群）The Eastern set:（1）The Balto-slavic Group（波罗的-斯拉夫语族）：Russian,Bulgarian,Polish,Czech etc.（2）The Indo-I
15、ranian Group（印度-伊朗语族）：Hindi,Bengali,Persian etc.(3)The Armenian Group（亚美尼亚语族）：Armenian.(4)The Albanian Group（阿尔巴尼亚语族）：Albanian.The Western set:(5)The Hellenic Group（古希腊语族）：Greek.(6)The Italian Group（意大利语族）：Latin ,Romance languages(French,Italian,Spanish, portuguese,Romanian)etc.(7)The Celtic Group（凯
16、尔特语族）：Irish,Welsh,Breton etc.(8)The Germanic Group（日耳曼语族）：Flemish,German,Dutch,Scandinavian(Norweigian, Swedish,Danish,Icelandic) etc.The Three Stages of Development of the English Vocabulary:1 Old English (450-1100) (vocabulary 50,000 to 60,000):was I high inflected language.2 Middle English (1150-
17、1500):retaines much fewer inflections3 Modern English (1500-up to now): in fact more than 25% of modern E words come almost directly fromclassical languages. In Modern E, words endings were mostly lost with just a few expections.English has evolvedfrom a synthetic language(Old English) to the presen
18、t analytic language.Modes of Vocabulary Development(词汇的发展模式):1)creation 创造新词：the formation of new words by using the existing materials,namely toots,affixes andother elements.(最重要方式)2)semantic change旧词新义 :does not increase the number of word forms but create many more new useagesof the words.3) borr
19、owing 借用外来词:constitute merely 6 to 7 percent of all new wordsReviving words or obsolete words also contributes to the growth of English vocabulary though quiteinsignificant.Chapter 3 Word Formation IMorpheme(词素):the smallest functioning unit in the composition of wordsAllomorph(词素变体): is a different
20、 variant form of a morpheme，differ in phonological and spelling form, butat the same in function and meaningType of Morpheme(词素的分类)（1）Free Morpheme（s 自由词素）: have complete meaning in themselves and can be used as free grammaticalunits in sentences. A free morpheme is one that can stand by itself. (in
21、dependent).（2）Bound Morpheme(粘着语素): A bound morpheme is one that cannot stand by itself.Bound Morpheme includes two types: (1) bound root(粘附词根) (2)Affix(词缀)Affixes can be put into two groups:1)Inflectional affixes (屈折词缀):affixes attached to the end of words to indicate grammatical relationships arei
22、nflectional,thus known as inflectional morphemes.2)Derivational affixes(派生词缀): A) prefix: A prefix comes before words. B)suffix:An adjective suffix（形容词后缀） that is added to the stem, whatever class is belongs to , the result will be an adjective.Free Morpheme =free root（自由词根）Morpheme(词素) Bound rootde
23、rivationalprefixsuffixboundaffixinflectionalRoot and stem（词根和词干）The differences between root and stem:A root is the basic form of a word which cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity.A stem is the surplus part after the cutting of inflectional morpheme in a word with inflectional m
24、orphemes,canbe further analyzed, it sometimes could be a root.Chapter 4 Word-Formation II(构词法)1.Affixation 词缀法（Derivation 派生法）：the formation of words by adding word-formaing or derivationalaffixes to stem.（1）Prefixation(前缀法)：Its the formation of new words by adding a prefixes to stems.1)Negative pre
25、fixes(否定前缀): un-,non-,in-,dis,a- ,il-,ir-,im-,etc.disobey(not obey)2)Reversative prefixes（逆反前缀）: un-,de-，dis- etc. unwrap(open)3) Pejorative prefixes: mis（贬义前缀）：mis-， mal-, pseudo- etc.misconduct(bad behaviour)4) Prefixes of degree or size(程度前缀)：arch-,extra-,hyper-,macro-,micro-,mini-,out-,over-,sub
26、-,super-,sur-,ultra-,under-,ect. overweight5) Prefixes of orientation and attitude（倾向态度前缀）:contra-,counter-,anti-,pro- etc.anti-nuclear6)Locative prefixes（方位前缀）:extra-,fore-,inter-,intra-,tele-,trans-, etc. extraordinary(more than ordinary)7) Prefixes of time and order（时间和顺序前缀）:fore-,pre-,post-,ex-,
27、re- etc. monorail(one rail)8) Number prefixes（数字前缀）:uni-，mono-, bi-，di-, tri-,multi-，poly- ，semi-，etc.bilingual(concerning twolanguages)9) Miscellaneous prefixes（混杂前缀）：auto-, neo-, pan-, vice-.vice-chairman(deputy chairman)(2)Suffixation（后缀法）: Its the formation of a new word by adding suffixes to st
28、ems.1)noun suffixes 2)adjective suffixes 3)Adverb suffixes 4)verb suffixes2.Compounding 复合法 （also called composition）Compounding: is the formation of new words by joining two or more stemsCompounds are written in three ways: solid连写(airmail)，hyphenated 带连字符(air-conditioning)and open 分开写(air force, a
29、ir raid)Formation of compounds（复合词的形式）（1）noun compounds ：e.g. : air + plane = airplane,flower + pot = flower pot（2）adjective compounds ： e.g. acid + head = acid-head（3）verb compounds ： e.g. house + keep = housekeep3.Conversion 转类法Conversion: is the formation of new words by converting words of one c
30、lass to another class（. 功能转换，又叫零派生.functional shift/zero-derivation）4.Blending 拼缀法Blending : is the formation of new words by combining parts of two words or a word plus a part of anotherword. e.g: motor + hotel = motel, smoke + fog = smog, formula + translation = FORTRAN5.Clipping 截短法四种形式：1).Front
31、clippings 删节前面 (phone from telephone)2).Back clippings 删节后面 (dorm from dormitory)3).Front and back clippings 前后删节(flu from influenza)4).Phrase clippings 短语删节(pop from popular music)6.Acronymy 首字母缩写法 Acronymy:is the process of forming new words by joining the initial letters of names of social and po
32、liticalorganizations or special noun phrases and technical terms.（1）Initialism（首字母缩写词法）: initialisms are words pronounced letter by letter. e.g.: BBC(for BritishBroadcasting corporation)（2）Acronym（首字母拼音法）:Acronyms are words formed from initial letters but pronounced as a normalword. E.g.:TEFL(teachi
33、ng English as a foreign language)7.Back-formation（逆生法，逆构词）Back-formation is considered to be the opposite process of suffixation. Its the method of creating words byremoving the supposed suffixes. (greed from greedy)8.Words From Proper Name(专有名词转成法):Names of people, places, book, and tradenames (e.g
34、.: sir watt siemens(人名) - watt（瓦特，电功率单位）Chapter 5 Word MeaningThe meanings of “Meaning” (“意义”的意义)Reference(所指):It is the relationship between language and the word. It is the arbitrary and conventional. It isa kind of abstraction, yet with the help of context, it can refer to something specific.Conc
35、ep（t 概念）:which is beyond language, is the result of human cognition(认识),reflecting the objective worldin the human mind.Sense（意义）:It denotes the relationship inside the language. The sense of an expression is its place in a systemof semantic relationships with other expressions in the language.Motiv
36、ation(理据)：It accounts for the connection between the linguistic symbol and its meaning.1) Onomatopoeic motivation（拟声理据）:words whose sounds suggest their meaning, for these words werecreates by imitating the natural sounds or noises. Knowing the sounds of the words means understanding themeaning. E.g
37、.: bang, ping-pong, ha ha.2)Morphological motivation （形态理据）:multi-morphemic words and the meaning of many are the sum totalof the morphemes combines. E.g.: airmail, miniskirt .例外：black market, ect.3)Semantic motivation（词义理据）：refers to the mental associations suggested by the conceptual meaning ofa w
38、ord. It explains the connection between the literal sense and figurative sense of the word. E.g:the foot ofthe mountain(foot)4)Etymological motivation （词源理据）:the history of the word explains the meaning of the word.E.g:pen-featherTypes of meaning(词义的类别)1.Grammatical Meaning（语法意义）:indicates the gramm
39、atical concept or relationships (becomes importantonly in actual context)2.Lexical Meaning （词汇意义）(Lexical meaning and grammatical meaning make up the word-meaning)Lexical meaning has 2 components 内容: Conceptual meaning(概念意义) and associative meaning(关联意义)1）Conceptual meaning(概念意义): also known as deno
40、tative meaning(外延意义) is the meaning given in thedictionary and forms the core of word-meaning.2）Associative meaning(关联意义):is the secondary meaning supplemented to the conceptual meaning.4types:（1） Connotative（内涵意义）：the overtones or associations suggested by the conceptual meaning,traditionally known
41、 as connotations.(例如“母亲”经常与“爱”“关心”“温柔”联系起来)（2） Stylistic（文体意义）：many words have stylistic features, which make them appropriate for differentcontexts.（3） Affective（感情意义） ：indicates the speakers attitude towards the person or thing in question这. 种情感价值观分两类：褒义和贬义 appreciative & pejorative （4） Collocativ
42、e（搭配意义）：is the part of the word-meaning suggested by the words before or after theword in discussion.Chapter 6 -Sense relation and semantic field （语义关系和语义场）Polysemy（多义关系）Two approached to polysemy（多义关系的两种研究方法）:1.diachronic approach(历时方法) ：from the diachronic point of view, polysemy is assumed to be
43、the result ofgrowth and development of the semantic structure of one and same word. First meaning is the primarymeaning , the later meanings are called derived meanings.2. synchronic approach (共时方法) : synchronically, polysemy is viewed as the coexistence of various meaningsof the same word in a cert
44、ain historical period of time.基本意义是 central meaning , 次要意义是 derivedmeaning.Two processes of development（词义的两种发展类型）:1. radiation（辐射型）：is a semantic process in which the primary meaning stands at the centre and thesecondary meanings proceed out of it in every direction like rayes. (e.g: face, neck)2.
45、concatenation（连锁型）:is the semantic process in which the meaning of a word move gradually away fromits first sense by successive shifts until there is not a sign of connection between the sense that is finallydeveloped and that which the term had at the beginning.(e.g:treacle)3. In radiation, each of
46、 the derived meaning is directly connected to the primary meaning. In concatenation,each of the later meaning is related only to the preceding one like chains. Though the latest sense can betraced back to the original, there is no direct connection in between.4. They are closely related, being diffe
47、rent stages of the development leading to polysemy. Generally,radiation precedes concatenation. In many cases, the two processes work together, complementing eachother.Homonymy（同形同音异义关系）:words different in meaning but either identical both in sound and spelling oridentical only in sound or spelling.
48、Types of homonyms(同音同形异义关系的类别)1）Perfect homonyms（完全同音同形异义词）：words identical both in sound and spelling, but different inmeaning.2)Homographs（同形异义词）:words identical only in spelling, but different in sound and meaning.(最多最常见)3）Homophones（同音异义词）：words identical only in sound but different in spelling and meaning.Origins of homonyms (同形同音异义词的来源)1）change in sound and spelling ：(eare-ear, lang-long, langia