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1、English Lexicology(English Lexicology(英语词汇学英语词汇学)LexicologyLexicology（词汇学）（词汇学）:is a branch of linguistics,inquiring into the origins and meanings ofwords.The Nature and Scope of English lexicologyThe Nature and Scope of English lexicology：English lexicology aims at investigating and studying the mo
2、rphological structures ofEnglish words and word equivalents,their semantic structures,relations,historicaldevelopment,formation and usages.The subjects that English Lexicology correlated with and extent toThe subjects that English Lexicology correlated with and extent to：English Lexicology is correl
3、ated with such linguistic disciplines as morphology(形态学),semantics(语义学),etymology(词源学),stylistics（文体论）andlexicography(词典学)The reason for a student to study English lexicologyThe reason for a student to study English lexicology：According to the textbook,English Lexicology will definitely be beneficia
4、l for students ofEnglish.A good knowledge of morphological structures of English words and rules ofword-formation will help learners develop their personal vocabulary and consciouslyincrease their word power.The information of the historical development and theprinciples of classification will give
5、them a deeper understanding of word-meaning andenable them to organize,classify and store words more effectively.The understanding andtheir sense relations will gradually raise their awareness of meaning and usage,and enablethem use words more accurately and appropriately.A working knowledge of dict
6、ionarieswill improve their skills of using reference books and raise their problem-solving ability andefficiency of individual study.Chapter 1-Basic concepts of words and vocabularyChapter 1-Basic concepts of words and vocabularyWordWord（词的定义）（词的定义）:A word is a minimal free form of a language that h
7、as a given sound andmeaning and syntactic function.(1)a minimal free form of a language(2)a sound unity(3)a unit of meaning(4)a form that can function alone in a sentenceSound and meaningSound and meaning（声音与意义）（声音与意义）:almost arbitrary,“no logical relationship between thesound which stands for a thi
8、ng or an idea and the actual thing and idea itself”Sound and formSound and form（读音和形式）（读音和形式）:不统一的四个原因（1）the English alphabet was adoptedfrom the Romans,which does not have a separate letter to represent each other（2）the pronunciation has changed more rapidly than spelling over the years（3）some ofth
9、e difference were creates by the early scribes（4）the borrowings is an importantchannel of enriching the English vocabulary_VocabularyVocabulary（词汇）（词汇）:all the words in a language make up its vocabularyClassification of English WordsClassification of English Words：By use frequency:basic word stock&n
10、onbasic vocabularyBy use frequency:basic word stock&nonbasic vocabularyBy notion:content words&functional wordsBy notion:content words&functional wordsBy origin:native words&borrowed wordsBy origin:native words&borrowed wordsThe basic word stockThe basic word stock（基本词汇）（基本词汇）:is the foundation of t
11、he vocabulary accumulated overcenturies and forms the common core of the language.Though it constitute a smallpercentage of the EV,it is the most important part of vocabulary.The Fundamental Features of the Basic Word Stock(The Fundamental Features of the Basic Word Stock(基本词汇的特征基本词汇的特征):1)All-Natio
12、nal character（全民通用性 most important）2)Stability（相对稳定性）3)Productivity（多产性）4)Polysemy（多义性）5)Collocability（可搭配性）没有上述特征的没有上述特征的 words:words:(1)Terminology(术语)(2)Jargon（行话）(3)slang（俚语）(4)Argot（暗语）（5）Dialectal words(方言)(6)Archaisms（古语）(7)Neologisms（新词语）:Neologisms means newly-created words or expressions,o
13、r words that have takenon new meanings.(email)Content words/notional wordsContent words/notional words实词实词(cloud,run walk,never,five,frequently)and)andfunctional words/empty wordsfunctional words/empty words虚词虚词(on,of,and,be,but)Native Words and Borrowed WordsNative Words and Borrowed WordsNative wo
14、rdsNative words（本族语词）（本族语词）:known as Anglo-Saxon words(50,000-60,000),are wordsbrought to Britain in the 5th century by the Germanic tribes.(mainstream of the basicword-stocks).Two other features:(1)neutral in style(2)frequent in useBorrowed words/Loan wordsBorrowed words/Loan words（外来语词）（外来语词）:word
15、s taken over from foreignlanguages.(80%of modern EV)4 Types of loan words:4 Types of loan words:1)denizens(同化词):(shirt from skyrta(ON)2)aliens（非同化词/外来词）:are borrowed words which have retained their originalpronunciation and spelling(kowtow(CH)磕头)3)translation loans(译借词):按其他语言方式组成英语 long time no see(
16、from China)4)semantic loans（借义词）：they are not borrowed with reference to the form,but theirmeanings are borrowed_Chapter 2 the development of the English VocabularyChapter 2 the development of the English VocabularyThe Indo-European Language Family(The Indo-European Language Family(印欧语系印欧语系)The Eigh
17、t Groups in Indo-European Family of Languages（8 大印欧语群）The Eastern set:（1）The Balto-slavic Group（波罗的-斯拉夫语族）：Russian,Bulgarian,Polish,Czech etc.（2）The Indo-Iranian Group（印度-伊朗语族）：Hindi,Bengali,Persian etc.(3)The Armenian Group（亚美尼亚语族）：Armenian.(4)The Albanian Group（阿尔巴尼亚语族）：Albanian.The Western set:(5
18、)The Hellenic Group（古希腊语族）：Greek.(6)The Italian Group（意大利语族）：Latin,Romance languages(French,Italian,Spanish,portuguese,Romanian)etc.(7)The Celtic Group（凯尔特语族）：Irish,Welsh,Breton etc.(8)The Germanic Group（日耳曼语族）：Flemish,German,Dutch,Scandinavian(Norweigian,Swedish,Danish,Icelandic)etc.The Three Stage
19、s of Development of the English Vocabulary:The Three Stages of Development of the English Vocabulary:1 Old English(450-1100)(vocabulary 50,000 to 60,000):was I high inflected language.2 Middle English(1150-1500):retaines much fewer inflections3 Modern English(1500-up to now):in fact more than 25%of
20、modern E words comealmost directly from classical languages.In Modern E,words endings were mostly lost withjust a few expections.English has evolved from a synthetic language(Old English)to thepresent analytic language.Modes of Vocabulary Development(Modes of Vocabulary Development(词汇的发展模式词汇的发展模式):)
21、:1)creation 创造新词：the formation of new words by using the existing materials,namelytoots,affixes and other elements.(最重要方式)2)semantic change 旧词新义:does not increase the number of word forms but createmany more new useages of the words.3)borrowing 借用外来词:constitute merely 6 to 7 percent of all new words
22、Reviving words or obsolete words also contributes to the growth of English vocabularythough quite insignificant._Chapter 3 Word Formation IChapter 3 Word Formation IMorpheme(Morpheme(词素词素):the smallest functioning unit in the composition of wordsAllomorph(Allomorph(词素变体词素变体):is a different variant f
23、orm of a morpheme，differ in phonologicaland spelling form,but at the same in function and meaningType of Morpheme(Type of Morpheme(词素的分类词素的分类)（1）Free Morphemes（自由词素）:have complete meaning in themselves and can be usedas free grammatical units in sentences.A free morpheme is one that can stand by its
24、elf.(independent).（2）Bound Morpheme(粘着语素):A bound morpheme is one that cannot stand by itself.Bound Morpheme includes two types:(1)bound root(粘附词根)(2)Affix(词缀)Affixes can be put into two groups:1)Inflectional affixes(屈折词缀):affixes attached to the end of words to indicategrammatical relationships are
25、 inflectional,thus known as inflectional morphemes.2)Derivational affixes(派生词缀):A)prefix:A prefix comes before words.B)suffix:Anadjective suffix（形容词后缀）that is added to the stem,whatever class is belongs to,theresult will be an adjective.Free Morpheme=free root（自由词根）Morpheme(词素)Bound rootprefixboundd
26、erivationalaffixsuffixinflectionalRoot and stemRoot and stem（词根和词干）（词根和词干）The differences between root and stem:A root is the basic form of a word which cannot be further analyzed without total loss ofidentity.A stem is the surplus part after the cutting of inflectional morpheme in a word withinflec
27、tional morphemes,can be further analyzed,it sometimes could be a root._Chapter 4 Word-Formation II(Chapter 4 Word-Formation II(构词法构词法)1.Affixation1.Affixation 词缀法词缀法（Derivation 派生法）：the formation of words by adding word-formaingor derivational affixes to stem.（1）Prefixation(前缀法)：Its the formation of
28、 new words by adding a prefixes to stems.1)Negative prefixes(否定前缀):un-,non-,in-,dis,a-,il-,ir-,im-,etc.disobey(not obey)2)Reversative prefixes（逆反前缀）:un-,de-，dis-etc.unwrap(open)3)Pejorative prefixes:mis（贬义前缀）：mis-，mal-,pseudo-etc.misconduct(badbehaviour)4)Prefixes of degree or size(程度前缀)：arch-,extra
29、-,hyper-,macro-,micro-,mini-,out-,over-,sub-,super-,sur-,ultra-,under-,ect.overweight5)Prefixes of orientation and attitude（倾向态度前缀）:contra-,counter-,anti-,pro-etc.anti-nuclear6)Locative prefixes（方位前缀）:extra-,fore-,inter-,intra-,tele-,trans-,etc.extraordinary(more than ordinary)7)Prefixes of time and
30、 order（时间和顺序前缀）:fore-,pre-,post-,ex-,re-etc.monorail(onerail)8)Number prefixes（数字前缀）:uni-，mono-,bi-，di-,tri-,multi-，poly-，semi-，etc.bilingual(concerning two languages)9)Miscellaneous prefixes（混杂前缀）：auto-,neo-,pan-,vice-.vice-chairman(deputychairman)(2)Suffixation（后缀法）:Its the formation of a new word
31、 by adding suffixes to stems.1)noun suffixes2)adjective suffixes3)Adverb suffixes4)verb suffixes2.Compounding2.Compounding 复合法（复合法（also called compositionalso called composition）Compounding:is the formation of new words by joining two or more stemsCompounds are written in three ways:solid连写(airmail)
32、，hyphenated 带连字符(air-conditioning)and open 分开写(air force,air raid)Formation of compounds（复合词的形式）（1）noun compounds：e.g.:air+plane=airplane,flower+pot=flower pot_（2）adjective compounds：e.g.acid+head=acid-head（3）verb compounds：e.g.house+keep=housekeep3.Conversion3.Conversion 转类法转类法Conversion:is the for
33、mation of new words by converting words of one class to anotherclass.（功能转换，又叫零派生.functional shift/zero-derivation）4.Blending4.Blending 拼缀法拼缀法Blending:is the formation of new words by combining parts of two words or a word plus apart of another word.e.g:motor+hotel=motel,smoke+fog=smog,formula+transl
34、ation=FORTRAN5.Clipping5.Clipping 截短法截短法Clipping:is to shorten a longer word by cutting a part off the original and using whatremains instead.e.g.plane from airplane,phone from telephone.四种形式：1).Front clippings 删节前面(phone from telephone)2).Back clippings 删节后面(dorm from dormitory)3).Front and back cl
35、ippings 前后删节(flu from influenza)4).Phrase clippings 短语删节(pop from popular music)6.Acronymy6.Acronymy 首字母缩写法首字母缩写法Acronymy:is the process of forming new words by joining the initial letters of names ofsocial and political organizations or special noun phrases and technical terms.（1）Initialism（首字母缩写词法
36、）:initialisms are words pronounced letter by letter.e.g.:BBC(for British Broadcasting corporation)（2）Acronym（首字母拼音法）:Acronyms are words formed from initial letters butpronounced as a normal word.E.g.:TEFL(teaching English as a foreign language)7.Back-formation7.Back-formation（逆生法，逆构词）（逆生法，逆构词）Back-f
37、ormation is considered to be the opposite process of suffixation.Its the method ofcreating words by removing the supposed suffixes.(greed from greedy)_8.Words From Proper Name(8.Words From Proper Name(专有名词转成法专有名词转成法):):Names of people,places,book,and tradenames(e.g.:sir watt siemens(人名)-watt（瓦特，电功率单
38、位）Chapter 5 Word MeaningChapter 5 Word MeaningThe meanings of“Meaning”The meanings of“Meaning”(“意义”的意义)ReferenceReference(所指):It is the relationship between language and the word.It is the arbitraryand conventional.It is a kind of abstraction,yet with the help of context,it can refer tosomething spe
39、cific.ConceptConcept（概念）:which is beyond language,is the result of human cognition(认识),reflecting the objective world in the human mind.SenseSense（意义）:It denotes the relationship inside the language.The sense of an expressionis its place in a system of semantic relationships with other expressions i
40、n the language.MotivationMotivation(理据)：It accounts for the connection between the linguistic symbol and itsmeaning.1)Onomatopoeic motivation（拟声理据）:words whose sounds suggest their meaning,forthese words were creates by imitating the natural sounds or noises.Knowing the sounds ofthe words means unde
41、rstanding the meaning.E.g.:bang,ping-pong,ha ha.2)Morphological motivation（形态理据）:multi-morphemic words and the meaning of manyare the sum total of the morphemes combines.E.g.:airmail,miniskirt.例外：black market,ect.3)Semantic motivation（词义理据）：refers to the mental associations suggested by theconceptua
42、l meaning of a word.It explains the connection between the literal sense andfigurative sense of the word.E.g:the foot of the mountain(foot)4)Etymological motivation（词源理据）:the history of the word explains the meaning of theword.E.g:pen-featherTypes of meaning(Types of meaning(词义的类别词义的类别)1.Grammatical
43、 Meaning（语法意义）:indicates the grammatical concept or relationships(becomes important only in actual context)2.Lexical Meaning（词汇意义）_(Lexical meaning and grammatical meaning make up the word-meaning)Lexical meaning has 2 components内容:Conceptual meaning(概念意义)and associativemeaning(关联意义)1）Conceptual mea
44、ning(概念意义):also known as denotative meaning(外延意义)is themeaning given in the dictionary and forms the core of word-meaning.2）Associative meaning(关联意义):is the secondary meaning supplemented to theconceptual meaning.4types:（1）Connotative（内涵意义）：the overtones or associations suggested by theconceptual me
45、aning,traditionally known as connotations.(例如“母亲”经常与“爱”“关心”“温柔”联系起来)（2）Stylistic（文体意义）：many words have stylistic features,which make themappropriate for different contexts.（3）Affective（感情意义）：indicates the speakers attitude towards the person or thingin question.这种情感价值观分两类：褒义和贬义appreciative&pejorativ
46、e（4）Collocative（搭配意义）：is the part of the word-meaning suggested by the wordsbefore or after the word in discussion.Chapter 6-Sense relation and semantic fieldChapter 6-Sense relation and semantic field（语义关系和语义场）PolysemyPolysemy（多义关系）Two approached to polysemy（多义关系的两种研究方法）:1.diachronic approach(历时方法)
47、：from the diachronic point of view,polysemy is assumedto be the result of growth and development of the semantic structure of one and sameword.First meaning is the primary meaning,the later meanings are called derivedmeanings.2.synchronic approach(共时方法):synchronically,polysemy is viewed as the coexi
48、stenceof various meanings of the same word in a certain historical period of time.基本意义是central meaning,次要意义是 derived meaning._Two processes of development（词义的两种发展类型）:1.radiation（辐射型）：is a semantic process in which the primary meaning stands at thecentre and the secondary meanings proceed out of it i
49、n every direction like rayes.(e.g:face,neck)2.concatenation（连锁型）:is the semantic process in which the meaning of a word movegradually away from its first sense by successive shifts until there is not a sign ofconnection between the sense that is finally developed and that which the term had atthe be
50、ginning.(e.g:treacle)3.In radiation,each of the derived meaning is directly connected to the primary meaning.In concatenation,each of the later meaning is related only to the preceding one likechains.Though the latest sense can be traced back to the original,there is no directconnection in between.4