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1、A Course on Linguistics for Students of English-Cheng Zhenquan School of Foreign Studies,SCNUTheGoalsforthisCoursen nTogetascientificviewonlanguage;n nTounderstandsomebasictheoriesonlinguistics;n nTounderstandtheapplicationsofthelinguistictheories,especiallyinthefieldsoflanguageteaching&learning(SLA
2、orTEFL),cross-culturalcommunication;n nToprepareforthefutureresearchwork.TheRequirementsforthiscoursen nClassattendancen nClassroomdiscussionn nFulfillmentoftheassignmentn nExaminationReferenceBooksn n戴炜栋，何兆熊，戴炜栋，何兆熊，(2002)(2002)，新编简明英语语言学教程新编简明英语语言学教程，上，上海外语教育出版社。海外语教育出版社。n n胡壮麟，胡壮麟，(2001)(2001)，语言
3、学教程语言学教程，北京大学出版社。，北京大学出版社。n n刘润清，刘润清，(1995)(1995)，西方语言学流派西方语言学流派，外语教学与研究出版，外语教学与研究出版社。社。n nFromkin,VFromkin,V.&R.Rodman,(1998),.&R.Rodman,(1998),AnIntroductiontoLanguageAnIntroductiontoLanguagethethesixthedition,Orlando,Florida:Holt,sixthedition,Orlando,Florida:Holt,RanehartRanehart&Winston,Inc.&Win
4、ston,Inc.Chapter1.Introduction1.Whatislanguage?Languagecanmeann nwhatapersonsayswhatapersonsays(e.g.badlanguage,expressions)(e.g.badlanguage,expressions)n nthewayofspeakingorwritingthewayofspeakingorwriting(e.g.Shakespeares(e.g.Shakespeareslanguage,language,LuxunsLuxunslanguage)language)n naparticul
5、arvarietyorlevelofspeechorwritingaparticularvarietyorlevelofspeechorwriting(e.g.(e.g.languageforspecialpurpose,colloquiallanguage)languageforspecialpurpose,colloquiallanguage)n ntheabstractsystemunderlyingthetotalityofthetheabstractsystemunderlyingthetotalityofthespeech/writingbehaviorofacommunitysp
6、eech/writingbehaviorofacommunity(e.g.Chinese(e.g.Chineselanguage,firstlanguage)language,firstlanguage)n nthecommonfeaturesofallhumanlanguagesthecommonfeaturesofallhumanlanguages(e.g.He(e.g.Hestudieslanguage)studieslanguage)n natoolforhumancommunication.(socialfunction)atoolforhumancommunication.(soc
7、ialfunction)n nasetofrules.asetofrules.(rule-governed)(rule-governed)Sapirsdefinition(1921)n n“Languageisapurelyhumanandnon-instinctivemethodofcommunicatingideas,emotionsanddesiresbymeansofvoluntarilyproducedsymbols.”Hallsdefinition(1968)n nLanguageis“theinstitutionwherebyhumanscommunicateandinterac
8、twitheachotherbymeansofhabituallyusedoral-auditoryarbitrarysymbols.”Chomskysdefinition(1957)n n“FromnowonIwillconsiderlanguagetobeasetof(finiteorinfinite)sentences,eachfiniteinlengthandconstructedoutofafinitesetofelements.”Languagecanbegenerallydefinedasasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancomm
9、unication.Languageisasystemn nSystematic-rule-governed,elementsinitarearrangedaccordingtocertainrules;cantbecombinedatwill.e.g.*bkli,*Iappleeat.Languageisarbitraryn nArbitrary-nointrinsicconnectionbetweenthewordandthethingitdenotes,e.g.“pen”byanyothernameisthethingweusetowritewith.Languageissymbolic
10、innaturen nSymbolic-wordsareassociatedwithobjects,actionsideasbyconvention.“Arosebyanyothernamewouldsmellassweet”-ShakespeareLanguageisprimarilyvocaln nVocal-theprimarymediumissoundforalllanguages;writingsystemcamemuchlaterthanspokenform.Languageishuman-specificn nHuman-specific-differentfromthecomm
11、unicationsystemsotherformsoflifepossess,e.g.birdsongs,beedance,animalcries.Thedesign/definingfeaturesofhumanlanguage(CharlesHockett)ArbitrarinessProductivity/CreativityDualityDisplacementCulturaltransmissionArbitrariness-Nological(motivatedorintrinsic)connectionbetween-Nological(motivatedorintrinsic
12、)connectionbetweensoundsandmeanings.soundsandmeanings.n nOnomatopoeicwords(whichimitatenaturalsounds)areOnomatopoeicwords(whichimitatenaturalsounds)aresomewhatmotivated(English:rumble,crackle,bang,.somewhatmotivated(English:rumble,crackle,bang,.Chinese:Chinese:putongputong,shashashasha,dingdangdingd
13、ang)n nSomecompoundwordsarenotentirelyarbitrary,e.g.Somecompoundwordsarenotentirelyarbitrary,e.g.type-writer,shoe-maker,air-conditioner,photocopytype-writer,shoe-maker,air-conditioner,photocopyProductivity/creativity-Peculiartohumanlanguages-Peculiartohumanlanguages，usersoflanguagecanunderstandandus
14、ersoflanguagecanunderstandandproducesentencestheyhaveneverheardbefore,e.g.wecanproducesentencestheyhaveneverheardbefore,e.g.wecanunderstandsentencelikeunderstandsentencelike“Ared-eyedelephantisdancingonthe“Ared-eyedelephantisdancingonthehotelbed”hotelbed”,thoughitdoesnotdescribeacommonhappeninginthe
15、,thoughitdoesnotdescribeacommonhappeningintheworld.world.n nAgibboncallsystemisnotproductiveforgibbondrawalltheirAgibboncallsystemisnotproductiveforgibbondrawalltheircallsfromafixedrepertoirewhichisrapidlyexhausted,makinganycallsfromafixedrepertoirewhichisrapidlyexhausted,makinganynoveltyimpossible.
16、noveltyimpossible.n nThebeedancedoeshavealimitedproductivity,asitisusedtoThebeedancedoeshavealimitedproductivity,asitisusedtocommunicateaboutfoodsourcesinanydirection.Butfoodsourcescommunicateaboutfoodsourcesinanydirection.Butfoodsourcesaretheonlykindofmessagesthatcanbesentthroughthebeearetheonlykin
17、dofmessagesthatcanbesentthroughthebeedance;beesdonot“talk”aboutthemselves,thehives,orwind,letdance;beesdonot“talk”aboutthemselves,thehives,orwind,letaloneaboutpeople,animals,hopesordesiresaloneaboutpeople,animals,hopesordesiresDuality(doublearticulation)n nLowerlevel-sounds(meaningless)Lowerlevel-so
18、unds(meaningless)n nHigherlevel-meaning(largerunitsofmeaning)Higherlevel-meaning(largerunitsofmeaning)n nAcommunicationsystemwithdualityisconsideredmoreAcommunicationsystemwithdualityisconsideredmoreflexiblethanonewithoutit,forafargreaternumberofflexiblethanonewithoutit,forafargreaternumberofmessage
19、scanbesent.Asmallnumberofsoundscanbemessagescanbesent.Asmallnumberofsoundscanbegroupedandregroupedintoalargenumberofunitsofgroupedandregroupedintoalargenumberofunitsofmeaning(words),andtheunitsofmeaningcanbearrangedmeaning(words),andtheunitsofmeaningcanbearrangedandrearrangedintoaninfinitenumberofse
20、ntences.andrearrangedintoaninfinitenumberofsentences.(we(wemakedictionaryofalanguage,butwecannotmakeamakedictionaryofalanguage,butwecannotmakeadictionaryofsentencesofthatlanguage.dictionaryofsentencesofthatlanguage.Displacement-Languagecanbeusedtorefertothings,whicharenotpresent:real-Languagecanbeus
21、edtorefertothings,whicharenotpresent:realorimaginedmattersinthepast,presentorfuture,orinfar-awayorimaginedmattersinthepast,presentorfuture,orinfar-awayplaces.places.n nAgibbonneveruttersacallaboutsomethingheatelastyearAgibbonneveruttersacallaboutsomethingheatelastyearn nThereissomethingspecialaboutt
22、hebeedancethough.BeesThereissomethingspecialaboutthebeedancethough.Beescommunicatewithotherbeesaboutthefoodsourcestheyhavefoundcommunicatewithotherbeesaboutthefoodsourcestheyhavefoundwhentheyarenolongerinthepresenceofthefood.Inthissense,thewhentheyarenolongerinthepresenceofthefood.Inthissense,thebee
23、beedancedancehasacomponentofdisplacement.Butthiscomponentishasacomponentofdisplacement.Butthiscomponentisveryinsignificant.Forthebeesmustcommunicateaboutthefoodveryinsignificant.Forthebeesmustcommunicateaboutthefoodimmediatelyonreturningtothehive.Theydonotdanceabouttheimmediatelyonreturningtothehive
24、.Theydonotdanceaboutthefoodtheydiscoveredlastmonthnordotheyspeculateaboutfuturefoodtheydiscoveredlastmonthnordotheyspeculateaboutfuturediscoveries.discoveries.Culturaltransmission-Languageisculturallytransmitted(throughteachingandlearning;-Languageisculturallytransmitted(throughteachingandlearning;r
25、atherthanbyinstinct).ratherthanbyinstinct).n nAnimalcallsystemsaregeneticallytransmitted.Allcats,gibbonsandAnimalcallsystemsaregeneticallytransmitted.Allcats,gibbonsandbeeshavesystemswhicharealmostidenticaltothoseofallothercats,beeshavesystemswhicharealmostidenticaltothoseofallothercats,gibbonsandbe
26、es.gibbonsandbees.n nAChinesespeakerandanEnglishspeakerarenotmutuallyAChinesespeakerandanEnglishspeakerarenotmutuallyintelligible.Thisshowsthatlanguageisculturallytransmitted.Thatis,intelligible.Thisshowsthatlanguageisculturallytransmitted.Thatis,itispassonfromonegenerationtothenextbyteachingandlear
27、ning,itispassonfromonegenerationtothenextbyteachingandlearning,ratherthanbyinstinct.ratherthanbyinstinct.n nThestoryofawolfchild,apigchildshowsthatahumanbeingThestoryofawolfchild,apigchildshowsthatahumanbeingbroughtupinisolationsimplydoesnotacquirehumanlanguage.broughtupinisolationsimplydoesnotacqui
28、rehumanlanguage.Functionsoflanguage n nPhaticPhatic:establishinganatmosphereormaintainingsocial:establishinganatmosphereormaintainingsocialcontact.contact.n nDirective:getthehearertodosomething.Directive:getthehearertodosomething.n nInformative:giveinformationaboutfacts.Informative:giveinformationab
29、outfacts.n nInterrogative:getinformationfromothers.Interrogative:getinformationfromothers.n nExpressive:expressfeelingsandattitudesofthespeaker.Expressive:expressfeelingsandattitudesofthespeaker.n nEvocative:createcertainfeelingsinthehearer(amuse,Evocative:createcertainfeelingsinthehearer(amuse,star
30、tle,soothe,worryorplease)startle,soothe,worryorplease)n nPerformativePerformative:languageisusedtodothings,toperform:languageisusedtodothings,toperformactions.actions.Theoriginoflanguage n nThedivine-origintheory-LanguageisagiftofGodThedivine-origintheory-LanguageisagiftofGodtomankind.tomankind.n nT
31、heinventiontheory-imitative,criesofnature,theTheinventiontheory-imitative,criesofnature,thegruntsofmenworkingtogether.gruntsofmenworkingtogether.n nTheevolutionarytheory-theresultofphysicalandTheevolutionarytheory-theresultofphysicalandpsychologicaldevelopment.psychologicaldevelopment.许国璋许国璋先生认为把语言定
32、义成交际工具不够科学先生认为把语言定义成交际工具不够科学,至少不够严谨至少不够严谨.他对语言的定义做了如下概括他对语言的定义做了如下概括:语言语言是是一种符号系统一种符号系统.n n当它作用于人与人之间的关系的时候当它作用于人与人之间的关系的时候,它是表它是表达相互反应的中介达相互反应的中介;n n当它作用于人与客观世界的关系的时候当它作用于人与客观世界的关系的时候,它是它是认知事物的工具认知事物的工具;n n当它作用于文化的时候当它作用于文化的时候,它是文化的载体它是文化的载体.2.Whatislinguistics?-Linguisticsisthescientificstudyoflan
33、guage.-Apersonwhostudieslinguisticsisknownasalinguist.Fourprinciplesoflinguisticstudiesn nExhaustiveness/adequacyn nConsistencyn nEconomyn nObjectivityThescopeormajorbranchesoflinguisticsn nTheoreticallinguisticsTheoreticallinguistics1.1.PhoneticsPhonetics2.2.PhonologyPhonology3.3.MorphologyMorpholo
34、gy4.4.SyntaxSyntax5.5.SemanticsSemanticsn nUseoflinguisticsUseoflinguistics1.1.AppliedlinguisticsAppliedlinguistics2.2.SociolinguisticsSociolinguistics3.3.PsycholinguisticsPsycholinguisticsTheoreticallinguisticsn nPhonetics-speechsound(description,classification,Phonetics-speechsound(description,cla
35、ssification,transcription):transcription):articulatoryarticulatoryphonetics,acousticphonetics,phonetics,acousticphonetics,auditoryphonetics.auditoryphonetics.n nPhonology-soundpatternsoflanguagesPhonology-soundpatternsoflanguagesn nMorphology-theformofwordsMorphology-theformofwordsn nSyntax-therules
36、governingthecombinationofwordsintoSyntax-therulesgoverningthecombinationofwordsintosentence.sentence.n nSemantics-themeaningoflanguage(whenthemeaningSemantics-themeaningoflanguage(whenthemeaningoflanguageisconductedinthecontextoflanguageuse-oflanguageisconductedinthecontextoflanguageuse-Pragmatics)P
37、ragmatics)Useoflinguisticsn nAppliedlinguistics-linguisticsandlanguageAppliedlinguistics-linguisticsandlanguageteachingteachingn nSociolinguistics-socialfactors(e.g.class,Sociolinguistics-socialfactors(e.g.class,education)affectlanguageuseeducation)affectlanguageusen nPsycholinguistics-linguisticbeh
38、aviorandPsycholinguistics-linguisticbehaviorandpsychologicalprocesspsychologicalprocessn nStylistics-linguisticandliteratureStylistics-linguisticandliteratureSomeotherapplicationsn nAnthropologicallinguisticsn nNeurolinguisticsn nComputationallinguistics(e.g.machinetranslation)Someimportantdistincti
39、onsinlinguisticsDescriptivevsprescriptiven nDescriptive-describe/analyzelinguisticfactsobservedorlanguagepeopleactuallyuse(modernlinguistic)n nPrescriptive-laydownrulesfor“correct”linguisticbehaviorinusinglanguage(traditionalgrammar)Synchronicvsdiachronicn nSynchronicstudy-Synchronicstudy-descriptio
40、nofadescriptionofalanguageatsomepointlanguageatsomepointoftime(modernoftime(modernlinguistics)linguistics)n nDiachronicstudy-Diachronicstudy-descriptionofadescriptionofalanguagethroughtimelanguagethroughtime(historicaldevelopment(historicaldevelopmentoflanguageoveraoflanguageoveraperiodoftime)period
41、oftime)Speechvswritingn nSpeech-primarymediumoflanguagen nWriting-laterdevelopedLanguevsparole(F.deSaussure)n nLangue-theabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallLangue-theabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallmembersofthespeechcommunity.membersofthespeechcommunity.n nParole-therealizationoflangueinactualuse
42、.Parole-therealizationoflangueinactualuse.n nSaussureSaussuretakesasociologicalviewoflanguageandhistakesasociologicalviewoflanguageandhisnotionoflangueisamatterofsocialconventions.notionoflangueisamatterofsocialconventions.Competenceandperformance(Chomsky)n nCompetence-theidealusersknowledgeoftherul
43、esofhislanguagen nPerformance-theactualrealizationofthisknowledgeinlinguisticcommunicationn nChomskylooksatlanguagefromapsychologicalpointofviewandtohimcompetenceisapropertyofthemindofeachindividual.Traditionalgrammarvsmodernlinguisticsn nTraditionalgrammar-prescriptive,written,Latin-basedframeworkn
44、 nModernlinguistics-descriptive,spoken,notnecessarilyLatin-basedframeworkChapter2Phonology n nLanguageisprimarilyvocal.Theprimarymediumofhumanlanguageissound.Linguistsarenotinterestedinallsounds,butinspeechsounds-soundsthatconveymeaninginhumancommunication.Phonetics -Abranchoflinguisticswhichstudies
45、thecharacteristicsofspeechsoundsandprovidesmethodsfortheirdescription,classificationandtranscription,e.g.pbilabial,stop.Threebranchesofphoneticsn nArticulatoryArticulatoryphonetics-fromthespeakerspointofview,phonetics-fromthespeakerspointofview,“howspeakersproducespeechsounds”“howspeakersproducespee
46、chsounds”n nAuditoryphonetics-fromthehearerspointofview,“howAuditoryphonetics-fromthehearerspointofview,“howsoundsareperceived”soundsareperceived”n nAcousticphonetics-fromthephysicalwayormeansbyAcousticphonetics-fromthephysicalwayormeansbywhichsoundsaretransmittedfromonetoanother.whichsoundsaretrans
47、mittedfromonetoanother.ArticulatoryphoneticsSpeechorgans:threeimportantareasPharyngeal cavity the throat;The oral cavity the mouth;Nasal cavity the nose.Thediagramofspeechorgans1.1.LipsLips2.2.TeethTeeth3.3.Teethridge(alveolar)Teethridge(alveolar)4.4.HardpalateHardpalate5.5.Softpalate(velum)Softpala
48、te(velum)6.6.UvulaUvula7.7.TipoftongueTipoftongue8.8.BladeoftongueBladeoftongue9.9.BackoftongueBackoftongue10.10.VocalcordsVocalcords11.11.PharyngealcavityPharyngealcavity12.12.NasalcavityNasalcavityOrthographicrepresentationofspeechsounds-Astandardizedandinternationallyacceptedsystemofphonetic-Asta
49、ndardizedandinternationallyacceptedsystemofphonetictranscriptionistheInternationalPhoneticAlphabet(IPA).ThebasictranscriptionistheInternationalPhoneticAlphabet(IPA).ThebasicprincipleoftheIPAisusingonelettertorepresentonespeechsound.principleoftheIPAisusingonelettertorepresentonespeechsound.n nBroadt
50、ranscription-usedindictionaryandtextbookforgeneralBroadtranscription-usedindictionaryandtextbookforgeneralpurpose,withoutdiacritics,e.g.clearpurpose,withoutdiacritics,e.g.clearl l,pit,pitn nNarrowtranscription-usedbyphoneticianforcarefulstudy,withNarrowtranscription-usedbyphoneticianforcarefulstudy,