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1、1Semantics-the study of language meaning.语义学是对语言意义的研究。语义学是对语言意义的研究。Meaning is central to the study of communication.意义是研究交际的核心内容。意义是研究交际的核心内容。What is meaning?-Scholars under different scientific backgrounds have different understandings of language meaning.第1页/共62页2Some views concerning the study of
2、 meaning Naming theory(Plato)命名论命名论 The conceptualist view 概念论概念论Contextualism(Bloomfield)语境论语境论Behaviorism 行为主义论行为主义论第2页/共62页3Naming theory(Plato)命名论命名论Words are names or labels for things.词语只是代表物体的名字或标记。词语只是代表物体的名字或标记。Limitations:1)Applicable to nouns only.2)There are nouns which denote things tha
3、t do not exist in the real world,e.g.ghost,dragon,unicorn,phenix 3)There are nouns that do not refer to physical objects but abstract notions,e.g.joy,impulse,hatred第3页/共62页4The conceptualist view 概念论概念论The conceptualist view holds that there is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it re
4、fers to(i.e.between language and the real world);rather,in the interpretation of meaning they are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind.语言学形式和所指之间（即语言和现实世界之间）没有直接联系；而在对意义的解释中，形式和所指是通过思维概念彼此联系。第4页/共62页5Ogden and Richards:semantic triangle奥格登和理查兹的语义三角奥格登和理查兹的语义三角Symbol/form（符号/形式）word/p
5、hrase/sentenceReferent（所指）object in the world of experienceThought/reference（concept）（思想/指称）第5页/共62页6The Theory of ReferenceWords Meaning:Words name or refer to things-PlatonicWordsConceptsThings:Ogden&Richardsthought/concept/imagesymbolizes refers tosymbol referent(word)stands for (object)第6页/共62页7
6、airplane第7页/共62页8The symbol or a word signifies“things”by virtue of the concept associated with the form of the word in the minds of the speaker of the language;and the concept looked at from this point of view is the meaning of the word.用符号或单词表示物体是通过言语者思维中单词的形式与概念联系起来实现的。从这个观点看，概念就是单词的意义。Ogden and
7、Richards:semantic triangle奥格登和理查兹的语义三角奥格登和理查兹的语义三角第8页/共62页9Contextualism(语境论)Meaning should be studied in terms of situation,use,context elements closely linked with language behavior.意义应当从场景,运用,语境这些与语言行为紧密相联的成分的角度来进行研究.Two types of contexts are recognized:Situational context;linguistic situation场景语
8、境和语言语境第9页/共62页10Linguistic context:sometimes known as co-text,is concerned with the probability of a words co-occurrence or collocation with another word,and also with the part of text that precedes and follows a particular utterance.语言语境有时也称为互文,它所涉及的是一个词与另一个词共现或搭配构成该词的部分意义的可能性,而且语境也涉及某一特定话语之前和之后的语境
9、部分.第10页/共62页11For example,“black”in black hair&black coffee,or black sheep differs in meaning;“The president of the United States”can mean either the president or presidency in different situation.The seal could not be found.第11页/共62页12Behaviorism(行为主义论)Behaviorists attempted to define meaning as“th
10、e situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer”.在在特特定定情情境境下下,说说话话人人的的话话语语在在听听话话人人身身上引起的反应上引起的反应.The story of Jack and Jill:Jill Jack S_r-s_R第12页/共62页13Lexical meaning 词汇意义词汇意义Sense and reference are both concerned with the study of word meaning.They are two
11、related but different aspects of meaning.意义和指称是在词义研究中经常遇到的意义和指称是在词义研究中经常遇到的两个术语两个术语.它们是意义的两个相关但不它们是意义的两个相关但不相同的方面相同的方面.第13页/共62页14Sense-is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form.It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form;it is abstract and de-contextualized.I
12、t is the aspect of meaning dictionary compilers are interested in.意义指的是语言形式的内在意义意义指的是语言形式的内在意义.它它是语言形式所有特征的集合是语言形式所有特征的集合,是抽象是抽象的的,而且与语境无关而且与语境无关,是词典编纂者是词典编纂者所感兴趣的方面所感兴趣的方面.第14页/共62页15Reference-what a linguistic form refers to in the real,physical world;it deals with the relationship between the lin
13、guistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.指称意指语言形式在现实的物质世界指称意指语言形式在现实的物质世界中所指的事物中所指的事物;它涉及的是语言成分它涉及的是语言成分和非语言的经验世界之间的关系和非语言的经验世界之间的关系.第15页/共62页16Note:Linguistic forms having the same sense may have different references in different situations;on the other hand,there are also occasio
14、ns,when linguistic forms with the same reference might differ in sense,e.g.the morning star and the evening star,Venus 金星金星/启明星启明星:在西边时是在西边时是evening star 在东边时是在东边时是morning star rising sun in the morning and the sunset at dusk.第16页/共62页17Major sense relations 主要的意义关系主要的意义关系 Synonymy 同义同义Antonymy 反义反义
15、Polysemy 一词多义一词多义Homonymy 同音异义同音异义Hyponymy 下义关系下义关系第17页/共62页18Synonymy 同义现象Synonymy refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning.Words that are close in meaning are called synonyms.同义现象是指意义的相同或极为相近同义现象是指意义的相同或极为相近.意义相近的词称为同义词意义相近的词称为同义词 1)Dialectal synonyms(方言同义词方言同义词)-synonyms used in diff
16、erent regional dialects,e.g.autumn-fall,biscuit-cracker,petrol gasoline 第18页/共62页19buy/purchasethrifty/economical/stingyautumn/fallflat/apartmenttube/underground2)Stylistic synonyms(文体同义词文体同义词)-synonyms differing in style,e.g.kid,child,offspring;start,begin,commence;第19页/共62页20Synonymy 3)Synonyms th
17、at differ in their emotive or evaluative meaning,e.g.collaborator-accomplice,情感和评价意义不同的同义词情感和评价意义不同的同义词 4)Collocational synonyms(搭配同义词搭配同义词),),e.g.accuseof,chargewith,rebukefor;5)Semantically different synonyms,e.g.amaze,astound,语义不同的同义词语义不同的同义词 第20页/共62页21Polysemy 多义现象Polysemy-the same one word may
18、 have more than one meaning,e.g.“table”may mean:A piece of furnitureAll the people seated at a tableThe food that is put on a tableA thin flat piece of stone,metal wood,etc.Orderly arrangement of facts,figures,etc.第21页/共62页22Homonymy 同音异义同音异义Homonymy-the phenomenon that words having different meanin
19、gs have the same form,e.g.different words are identical in sound or spelling,or in both.同音异义是指不同意义的词拥有相同的同音异义是指不同意义的词拥有相同的形式形式,即不同的词在发音或者拼写上一即不同的词在发音或者拼写上一样样,或者两者都一样或者两者都一样.Homophone(同音异义词同音异义词)-when two words are identical in sound,e.g.rain-reign,night/knight,第22页/共62页23Homogragh(同形异义词同形异义词)-when t
20、wo words are identical in spelling,e.g.tear(n.)-tear(v.),lead(n.)-lead(v.),Complete homonym(完全同音异义词完全同音异义词)-)-when two words are identical in both sound and spelling,e.g.ball,bank,watch,scale,fast,第23页/共62页24Note:A polysemic word is the result of the evolution of the primary meaning of the word(the
21、etymology of the word);while complete homonyms are often brought into being by coincidence.一个多义词是其基本意义（词源）发展的结果，它的各种意义在某种程度上是相互关联的。第24页/共62页25Hyponymy 下义关系下义关系Hyponymy-the sense relation between a more general,more inclusive word and a more specific word.下义关系指的是一个更普遍下义关系指的是一个更普遍,范围更广泛的词和一个更具体的词之间的关系
22、范围更广泛的词和一个更具体的词之间的关系.Superordinate:the word which is more general in meaning.意义上更普遍的那个词称为意义上更普遍的那个词称为上坐标词上坐标词.Hyponyms:the word which is more specific in meaning.意义更具体的词称为意义更具体的词称为下义词下义词.第25页/共62页26Co-hyponyms:hyponyms of the same superordinate.在同一个上坐标词的下义词称为在同一个上坐标词的下义词称为并列下并列下义词义词.第26页/共62页27Hypon
23、ymy 下义关系下义关系Superordinate 上坐标词上坐标词:flowerHyponyms 下义词下义词:rose,tulip,lily,chrysanthemum,peony,narcissus,Superordinate 上坐标词上坐标词:furnitureHyponyms 下义词下义词:bed,table,desk,dresser,wardrobe,sofa,第27页/共62页28 Animalbird fish insect animal human animal tiger lion elephant .第28页/共62页29Inclusiveness包含关系包含关系A is
24、 included in/a kind of B.Cf.:chair and furniture,rose and flowerSuperordinate/hypernym:the more general termHyponym:the more specific termCo-hyponyms:members of the same class第29页/共62页30Antonymy(反义词反义词)Gradable antonyms(等级等级/级差反义词级差反义词)-)-there are often intermediate forms between the two members of
25、 a pair,e.g.old-young,hot-cold,tall-short,第30页/共62页31Gradable antonymy good-badlong-shortbig-smallCan be modified by adverbs of degree like very.Can have comparative forms.Can be asked with how.第31页/共62页32Complementary antonyms(互补反义词)Complementary antonyms(互补反义词互补反义词)-the denial of one member of the
26、 pair implies the assertion of the other,e.g.alive-dead,male-female,一对一对互补反义词是以对一方的否定就是对另一互补反义词是以对一方的否定就是对另一方的肯定为特征方的肯定为特征.第32页/共62页33Complementary antonymyalive:deadmale:femalepresent:absentinnocent:guiltyn nodd:evenn npass:failn nboy:girln nhit:miss第33页/共62页34Relational opposites(关系反义词关系反义词)-exhib
27、its the reversal of the relationship between the two items.表示两个词之间关系颠倒的成对词表示两个词之间关系颠倒的成对词.e.g.husband-wife,father-son,doctor-patient,buy-sell,let-rent,employer-employee,give-receive,above-below,第34页/共62页35Converse antonymy(关系反义词)buy:selllend:borrowgive:receiveparent:childhusband:wifen nteacher:stude
28、ntn nabove:belown nbefore:aftern nhost:guestn nemployer:employee第35页/共62页36Sense relations between sentences句子之间的意义关系句子之间的意义关系(1)X is synonymous with Y(X与与Y同义同义)(2)X is inconsistent with Y(X与与Y不一致不一致)(3)X entails Y(X蕴含蕴含Y)(4)X presupposes Y(X预设预设Y)(5)X is a contradiction(X自我矛盾自我矛盾)(6)X is semantical
29、ly anomalous(X语义反常语义反常)第36页/共62页37X is synonymous with Y(X与与Y同义同义)X:He was a bachelor all his life.Y:He never got married all his life.X:The boy killed the cat.Y:The cat was killed by the boy.If X is true,Y is true;if X is false,Y is false.第37页/共62页38X is inconsistent with Y(X(X与与Y Y不一致不一致)X:He is s
30、ingle.Y:He has a wife.X:This is my first visit to Beijing.Y:I have been to Beijing twice.If X is true,Y is false;if X is false,Y is true.第38页/共62页39X entails Y(X蕴含于蕴含于Y)X:John married a blond heiress.Y:John married a blond.X:Marry has been to Beijing.Y:Marry has been to China.Entailment is a relatio
31、n of inclusion.If X entails Y,then the meaning of X is included in Y.If X is true,Y is necessarily true;if X is false,Y may be true or false.第39页/共62页40X presupposes Y(X预设预设Y)X:His bike needs repairing.Y:He has a bike.Paul has given up smoking.Paul once smoked.If X is true,Y must be true;If X is fal
32、se,Y is still true.第40页/共62页41X is a contradiction(X自我矛盾)*My unmarried sister is married to a bachelor.*The orphans parents are pretty well-off.第41页/共62页42X is semantically anomalous(X语义反常)*The man is pregnant.*The table has bad intentions.*Sincerity shakes hands with the black apple.第42页/共62页43Anal
33、ysis of meaning 意义分析意义分析Componential analysis(成分分析)Predication analysis(述谓结构分析)第43页/共62页44Componential analysis成分分析成分分析Componential analysis-a way to analyze lexical meaning.The approach is based on the belief that the meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning components,called semantic featur
34、es.成分分析法是由结构语义学家提出的分析词义的方法.这个理论是基于这样一个信念:一个词的意义能被分解成被称为语义特征的意义成分.第44页/共62页45For example:Man:+HUMAN,+ADULT,+ANIMATE,+MALEBoy:+HUMAN,-ADULT,+ANIMATE,+MALEWoman:+HUMAN,+ADULT,+ANIMATE,-MALEGirl:+HUMAN,-ADULT,+ANIMATE,-MALE第45页/共62页46Animal words第46页/共62页47Domestic animals第47页/共62页48English motion verbs
35、第48页/共62页49More complex onesfather:PARENT(x,y)&MALE(x)x is a parent of y,and x is male.take:CAUSE(x,(HAVE(x,y)x causes x to have y.give:CAUSE(x,(HAVE(x,y)x causes x not to have y.第49页/共62页50Predication analysis述谓结构分析述谓结构分析1)The meaning of a sentence is not to be worked out by adding up all the meani
36、ngs of its component words,首先首先,句子意义并不是它所有成分意义的句子意义并不是它所有成分意义的总和总和.e.g“The dog bites the man”is semantically different from“The man bites the dog”though their components are exactly the same.第50页/共62页51The cat is chasing the mouse.The mouse is chasing the cat.I have read that book.That book I have r
37、ead.The daughter of Queen Elizabeths son is the son of Queen Elizabeths daughter.第51页/共62页522)There are two aspects to sentence meaning:grammatical meaning and semantic meaning,其其次次,句句子子的的意意义义包包括括语语法法意意义义和和语语义意义两个方面义意义两个方面.第52页/共62页53e.g.*Green clouds are sleeping furiously.*Sincerity shook hands wi
38、th the black apple.Whether a sentence is semantically meaningful is governed by rules called selectional restrictions(选择限制规则)(constraints on what lexical items can go with what other).第53页/共62页54Predication analysis述谓结构分析述谓结构分析Predication analysis-a way to analyze sentence meaning(British G.Leech 杰弗
39、里杰弗里.利奇利奇).Predication-the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence.A predication consists of argument(s)and predicate.述谓结构述谓结构是句子意义的抽象是句子意义的抽象.由由变元变元和和谓谓词词构成构成.第54页/共62页55An argument is a logical participant in a predication,largely identical with the nominal elements in a sentence.一个变元就是一个述谓结构的逻辑参
40、与者一个变元就是一个述谓结构的逻辑参与者,在很大程度上等同于一个句子的名词性成在很大程度上等同于一个句子的名词性成分分.A predicate is something said about an argument or it states the logical relation linking the arguments in a sentence.谓词是对变元所作的陈述,或是陈述一个句子中连接变元之间的逻辑关系.第55页/共62页56Predication analysis述谓结构分析述谓结构分析According to the number of arguments contained
41、 in a predication,we may classify the predications into the following types:One-place predication(单 位 述 谓 结 构):smoke,grow,rise,run,第56页/共62页57Two-place predication(双位述谓结构):like,love,save,bite,beat,Three-place predication(三位述谓结构):give,sent,promise,call,No-place predication(空位述谓结构):It is hot.第57页/共62页
42、58Predication analysis述谓结构分析述谓结构分析Tom smokes.TOM(SMOKE)The tree grows well.TREE(GROW)The kids like apples.KIDS(LIKE)APPLE I sent him a letter.I(SEND)HIM LETTER第58页/共62页59Argument and PredicateJohn runs.runs(John)or R(j)John loves Mary.loves(John,Mary)or L(j,m)John gave Mary a book.gave(John,Mary,book)or G(j,m,b)第59页/共62页60One-place predicate:runTwo-place predicate:loveThree-place predicate:give第60页/共62页61Thank you!Thank you!第61页/共62页62感谢您的观看。第62页/共62页