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1、A Course on Linguistics A Course on Linguistics for Students of Englishfor Students of English-Zhou Yongping-Zhou Yongping School of Foreign Studies,School of Foreign Studies,JXUFEJXUFEThe Requirements for this coursevClassattendancevClassroomdiscussionvFulfillmentoftheassignmentvExaminationQuestion
2、sfordiscussionv1.DoyoulikeChinese?DoyoulikeEnglish?Doyoulikelanguage?v2.Doyouknowwhytherearesomanydifferentlanguagesintheworld?(Originoflanguage)v3.Imagine,ifyoucannotspeakanylanguage,whatwouldhappentoyou?Ifallthepeoplecannotspeakanylanguage,whatwouldhappentotheworld?v4.Doyouwanttolearnlanguage?Doyo
3、uwanttostudylanguage?Whatislanguage?(Howwouldyoudefinelanguagebyasentence?)The Goals for this Course(why study language?)vTogetascientificviewonlanguage;vTounderstandsomebasictheoriesonlinguistics;vTounderstandtheapplicationsofthelinguistictheories,especiallyinthefieldsoflanguageteaching&learning(SL
4、AorTEFL),cross-culturalcommunication;vToprepareforthefutureresearchwork.Reference Booksv戴炜栋，何兆熊，(2002)，新编简明英语语言学教程，上海外语教育出版社。v胡壮麟，(2001)，语言学教程，北京大学出版社。v刘润清，(1995)，西方语言学流派，外语教学与研究出版社。Chapter 1.Introduction1.What is language?Language can meanvwhatapersonsays(e.g.badlanguage,expressions)vthewayofspeaki
5、ngorwriting(e.g.Shakespeareslanguage,Luxunslanguage)vaparticularvarietyorlevelofspeechorwriting(e.g.languageforspecialpurpose,colloquiallanguage)vtheabstractsystemunderlyingthetotalityofthespeech/writingbehaviorofacommunity(e.g.Chineselanguage,firstlanguage)vthecommonfeaturesofallhumanlanguages(e.g.
6、Hestudieslanguage)vatoolforhumancommunication.(socialfunction)vasetofrules.(rule-governed)Sapirs definition(1921)v“Languageisapurelyhumanandnon-instinctivemethodofcommunicatingideas,emotionsanddesiresbymeansofvoluntarilyproducedsymbols.”Halls definition(1968)vLanguageis“theinstitutionwherebyhumansco
7、mmunicateandinteractwitheachotherbymeansofhabituallyusedoral-auditoryarbitrarysymbols.”Chomskys definition(1957)v“FromnowonIwillconsiderlanguagetobeasetof(finiteorinfinite)sentences,eachfiniteinlengthandconstructedoutofafinitesetofelements.”Language can be generally defined asasystemofarbitraryvocal
8、symbolsusedforhumancommunication.Language is a systemvSystematic-rule-governed,elementsinitarearrangedaccordingtocertainrules;cantbecombinedatwill.e.g.*bkli,*Iappleeat.Language is arbitraryvArbitrary-nointrinsicconnectionbetweenthewordandthethingitdenotes,e.g.“pen”byanyothernameisthethingweusetowrit
9、ewith.Language is symbolic in naturevSymbolic-wordsareassociatedwithobjects,actionsideasbyconvention.“Arosebyanyothernamewouldsmellassweet”-ShakespeareLanguage is primarily vocalvVocal-theprimarymediumissoundforalllanguages;writingsystemcamemuchlaterthanspokenform.Language is humanspecific vHuman-sp
10、ecific-differentfromthecommunicationsystemsotherformsoflifepossess,e.g.birdsongs,beedance,animalcries.2.The design/defining features of human language(Charles Hockett)ArbitrarinessProductivity/CreativityDualityDisplacementCulturaltransmissionArbitrariness-Nological(motivatedorintrinsic)connectionbet
11、weensoundsandmeanings.vOnomatopoeicwords(whichimitatenaturalsounds)aresomewhatmotivated(English:rumble,crackle,bang,.Chinese:putong,shasha,dingdang)vSomecompoundwordsarenotentirelyarbitrary,e.g.type-writer,shoe-maker,air-conditioner,photocopyProductivity/creativity-Peculiartohumanlanguages，usersofla
12、nguagecanunderstandandproducesentencestheyhaveneverheardbefore,e.g.wecanunderstandsentencelike“Ared-eyedelephantisdancingonthehotelbed”,thoughitdoesnotdescribeacommonhappeningintheworld.vAgibboncallsystemisnotproductiveforgibbondrawalltheircallsfromafixedrepertoirewhichisrapidlyexhausted,makinganyno
13、veltyimpossible.vThebeedancedoeshavealimitedproductivity,asitisusedtocommunicateaboutfoodsourcesinanydirection.Butfoodsourcesaretheonlykindofmessagesthatcanbesentthroughthebeedance;beesdonot“talk”aboutthemselves,thehives,orwind,letaloneaboutpeople,animals,hopesordesiresDuality(double articulation)vL
14、owerlevel-sounds(meaningless)vHigherlevel-meaning(largerunitsofmeaning)vAcommunicationsystemwithdualityisconsideredmoreflexiblethanonewithoutit,forafargreaternumberofmessagescanbesent.Asmallnumberofsoundscanbegroupedandregroupedintoalargenumberofunitsofmeaning(words),andtheunitsofmeaningcanbearrange
15、dandrearrangedintoaninfinitenumberofsentences.(wemakedictionaryofalanguage,butwecannotmakeadictionaryofsentencesofthatlanguage.Displacement-Languagecanbeusedtorefertothings,whicharenotpresent:realorimaginedmattersinthepast,presentorfuture,orinfar-awayplaces.vAgibbonneveruttersacallaboutsomethingheat
16、elastyearvThereissomethingspecialaboutthebeedancethough.Beescommunicatewithotherbeesaboutthefoodsourcestheyhavefoundwhentheyarenolongerinthepresenceofthefood.Inthissense,thebeedancehasacomponentofdisplacement.Butthiscomponentisveryinsignificant.Forthebeesmustcommunicateaboutthefoodimmediatelyonretur
17、ningtothehive.Theydonotdanceaboutthefoodtheydiscoveredlastmonthnordotheyspeculateaboutfuturediscoveries.Cultural transmission-Languageisculturallytransmitted(throughteachingandlearning;ratherthanbyinstinct).vAnimalcallsystemsaregeneticallytransmitted.Allcats,gibbonsandbeeshavesystemswhicharealmostid
18、enticaltothoseofallothercats,gibbonsandbees.vAChinesespeakerandanEnglishspeakerarenotmutuallyintelligible.Thisshowsthatlanguageisculturallytransmitted.Thatis,itispassonfromonegenerationtothenextbyteachingandlearning,ratherthanbyinstinct.vThestoryofawolfchildshowsthatahumanbeingbroughtupinisolationsi
19、mplydoesnotacquirehumanlanguage.3.Functions of languagevPhatic:establishinganatmosphereormaintainingsocialcontact.vDirective:getthehearertodosomething.vInformative:giveinformationaboutfacts.vInterrogative:getinformationfromothers.vExpressive:expressfeelingsandattitudesofthespeaker.vEvocative:createc
20、ertainfeelingsinthehearer(amuse,startle,soothe,worryorplease)vPerformative:languageisusedtodothings,toperformactions.4.The origin of languagev1)Thedivine-origintheory-LanguageisagiftofGodtomankind.vTheTowerofBabel巴比塔Noahhadthreesons-Shen,Hamandjapeth,whohadmanychildren,andthesechildrenhadchildren,fo
21、rGodcommandedthemtomultiply.Theyalllivedtogether,andthewholeearthspokeonelanguage.Theylivedinonearea,andstartedtobuildacitywithatower.v“withitstopintheheavens.lestwebescatteredabroaduponthefaceoftheEarth.“Theycouldreachheaven,theycouldunderstandallthesecretsoftheworld.vGodcamedowntoseewhattheydidand
22、said:Theyareonepeopleandhaveonelanguage,andnothingwillbewithholdenfromthemwhichtheypurposetodo.SoGodsaid,Come,letusgodownandconfoundtheirspeech.AndsoGodscatteredthemuponthefaceoftheEarth,andconfusedtheirlanguages,andtheyleftoffbuildingthecity,whichwascalledBabelbecauseGodthereconfoundedthelanguageof
23、alltheEarth.(Genesis11:5-8).ThestoryofthetowerofBabelexplainstheoriginsofthemultiplicityoflanguagesReadmore:http:/ is linguistics?-Linguisticsisthescientificstudyoflanguage.-Apersonwhostudieslinguisticsisknownasalinguist.6.Four principles of linguistic studiesvExhaustiveness/adequacyvConsistencyvEco
24、nomyvObjectivity7.The scope or major branches of linguisticsvTheoreticallinguistics1.Phonetics2.Phonology3.Morphology4.Syntax5.SemanticsvUseoflinguistics1.Appliedlinguistics2.Sociolinguistics3.PsycholinguisticsTheoretical linguisticsvPhonetics-speechsound(description,classification,transcription):ar
25、ticulatoryphonetics,acousticphonetics,auditoryphonetics.vPhonology-soundpatternsoflanguagesvMorphology-theformofwordsvSyntax-therulesgoverningthecombinationofwordsintosentence.vSemantics-themeaningoflanguage(whenthemeaningoflanguageisconductedinthecontextoflanguageuse-Pragmatics)Use of linguisticsvA
26、ppliedlinguistics-linguisticsandlanguageteachingvSociolinguistics-socialfactors(e.g.class,education)affectlanguageusevPsycholinguistics-linguisticbehaviorandpsychologicalprocessvStylistics-linguisticandliteratureSome other applications vAnthropologicallinguisticsvNeurolinguisticsvComputationallingui
27、stics(e.g.machinetranslation)8.Some important distinctions in linguistics Descriptive vs prescriptivevDescriptive-describe/analyzelinguisticfactsobservedorlanguagepeopleactuallyuse(modernlinguistic)vPrescriptive-laydownrulesfor“correct”linguisticbehaviorinusinglanguage(traditionalgrammar)Synchronic
28、vs diachronicvSynchronicstudy-descriptionofalanguageatsomepointoftime(modernlinguistics)vDiachronicstudy-descriptionofalanguagethroughtime(historicaldevelopmentoflanguageoveraperiodoftime)Speech vs writingvSpeech-primarymediumoflanguagevWriting-laterdevelopedLangue vs parole(F.de Saussure)vLangue-th
29、eabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallmembersofthespeechcommunity.vParole-therealizationoflangueinactualuse.vSaussuretakesasociologicalviewoflanguageandhisnotionoflangueisamatterofsocialconventions.Competence and performance(Chomsky)vCompetence-theidealusersknowledgeoftherulesofhislanguagevPerformance
30、-theactualrealizationofthisknowledgeinlinguisticcommunicationvChomskylooksatlanguagefromapsychologicalpointofviewandtohimcompetenceisapropertyofthemindofeachindividual.Traditional grammar vs modern linguisticsvTraditionalgrammar-prescriptive,written,Latin-basedframeworkvModernlinguistics-descriptive
31、,spoken,notnecessarilyLatin-basedframeworkChapter 2 PhonologyvLanguageisprimarilyvocal.Theprimarymediumofhumanlanguageissound.Linguistsarenotinterestedinallsounds,butinspeechsounds-soundsthatconveymeaninginhumancommunication.Phonetics -Abranchoflinguisticswhichstudiesthecharacteristicsofspeechsounds
32、andprovidesmethodsfortheirdescription,classificationandtranscription,e.g.pbilabial,stop.Three branches of phonetics vArticulatoryphonetics-fromthespeakerspointofview,“howspeakersproducespeechsounds”vAuditoryphonetics-fromthehearerspointofview,“howsoundsareperceived”vAcousticphonetics-fromthephysical
33、wayormeansbywhichsoundsaretransmittedfromonetoanother.Articulatory phonetics Speech organs:three important areas Pharyngeal cavity-the throat;The oral cavity-the mouth;Nasal cavity-the nose.The diagram of speech organs1.Lips2.Teeth3.Teethridge(alveolar)4.Hardpalate5.Softpalate(velum)6.Uvula7.Tipofto
34、ngue8.Bladeoftongue9.Backoftongue10.Vocalcords11.Pharyngealcavity12.NasalcavityOrthographic representation of speech sounds-AstandardizedandinternationallyacceptedsystemofphonetictranscriptionistheInternationalPhoneticAlphabet(IPA).ThebasicprincipleoftheIPAisusingonelettertorepresentonespeechsound.v
35、Broadtranscription-usedindictionaryandtextbookforgeneralpurpose,withoutdiacritics,e.g.clearl,pitvNarrowtranscription-usedbyphoneticianforcarefulstudy,withdiacritics,e.g.darkl,aspiratedpSome major articulatory variables-dimensionsonwhichspeechsoundsmayvary:vVoicing-voiced&voicelessvNasality-nasal&non
36、-nasalvAspiration-aspirated&unaspiratedClassification of English speech sounds-Englishspeechsoundsaregenerallyclassifiedintotwolargecategories:vVowelsvConsonantsNote:Theessentialdifferencebetweenthesetwoclassesisthatintheproductionoftheformertheairstreammeetswithnoobstructionofanykindinthethroat,the
37、noseorthemouth,whileinthatofthelatteritissomehowobstructed.Classification of consonants-Englishconsonantsmaybeclassifiedaccordingtotwodimensions:vThemannerofarticulationvTheplaceofarticulationThe manner of articulationvstops/plosives:p,b,t,d,k,g;vfricatives:f,v,s,z,W,T,F,V,h;vaffricates:tF,dV;vliqui
38、ds:l(lateral),r;vnasals:m,n,N;vglides/semivowels:w,j.The place of articulationvbilabial:p,b,m,w;vlabiodental:f,v;vdental:W,T;valveolar:t,d,s,z,n,l,r;vpalatal:F,V,tF,dV,j;vvelar:k,g,N;vglottal:h.The place of articulation1.Bilabial;2.Labiodental;3.Dentalorinterdental;4.Alveolar;5.Palatoalveolar;6.Pala
39、tal;7.Velar;8.Uvular;9.Glottal.The description of English consonantsPlacemannerVoic-ingBila-bialLabio-dentalDentalAlveo-larPalatalVelar GlottalStopsorplosivesVLptkVDbdgFrica-tivesVLf W sF hVDvT zV Affri-catesVL(tF)tFVD(dV)dVNasalsVDmnN LiquidsVDl,rGlidesVDwj Classification of vowels-Englishvowelscan
40、bedividedintotwolargecategories:vMonophthongsorpure/singlevowelsvDiphthongsorglidingvowelsMonophthongs or pure/single vowels-According to which part of the tongue is heldhighestintheprocessofproduction,thevowelscanbedistinguishedas:vfrontvowels:I:,I,e,Z,A,B;vcentralvowels:E:,E,Q;vbackvowels:u:,u,C:,
41、C,B:.According to the openness of the mouth vClose:I:,I,u:,u.vSemi-close:e,E:;vSemi-open:E,C;vOpen:A,B,C,B:,Q;The diagram of single vowel classification by applying the two criteria so far mentioned:According to the shape of the lips orthe degree of lip rounding vrounded:u:,u,C:,C;vunrounded:I:,I,e,
42、Z,A,B,E:,E,Q,B:.According to the length of the vowels vlong:I:,E:,u:,C:,B:vshort:I,e,Z,A,E,Q,B,u,C.Diphthongs/gliding vowels vei,ai,aU,EU,Ri,iE,ZE,UE.Exercises:underline the words that begin with a sound as required.vAbilabialconsonant:madsadbadcadpadhadladvAvelarconsonant:nodgodcodpodrodvLabiodenta
43、lconsonant:ratfatsatmatchatvatpatvAnalveolarconsonant:nicklicksicktickkickquickvApalato-alveolarconsonant:sipshiptipchiplipzipvAdentalconsonant:liebuythighthytieryevAglide:onewaryolkrushUnderline the words that end with a sound as required:vAfricativepayhorsetoughricebreathpushsingwreathehangcavemes
44、sagevAnasaltrainbangleaflimbvAstopdrillpipefitcrabfogridelaughrackthroughtipvAnaffricate:racksuchridgeboozeUnderline the words that contain the sound as required:vAcentralvowel:madlotbutbootwordvAfrontvowel:reedpadloadfatebitbedcookvAroundedvowel:whohebusherhittruebossbarwalkvAbackvowel:paidreapfool
45、topgoodfatherDescribetheunderlinedconsonantsaccordingtothreedimensions:vd/vlplacemannerLetterBrotherSunnyHopperItchingLodgerCallingSingingRobbereitherPhonologyvPhonologystudiesthepatterningofspeechsounds,thatis,thewaysinwhichspeechsoundsformsystemsandpatternsinhumanlanguages.Phonetics&phonologyvBoth
46、areconcernedwiththesameaspectoflanguage-thespeechsounds.Buttheydifferintheirapproachandfocus.vPhoneticsisofgeneralnature;itisinterestedinallthespeechsoundsusedinallhumanlanguages;itaimstoanswerquestionslike:howtheyareproduced,howtheydifferfromeachother,whatphoneticfeaturestheyhave,howtheycanbeclassi
47、fied,etc.vPhonologyaimstodiscoverhowspeechsoundsinalanguageformpatternsandhowthesesoundsareusedtoconveymeaninginlinguisticcommunication.Phone,phoneme,allophonePhonevAphone-aphoneticunitorsegment.Thespeechsoundswehearandproduceduringlinguisticcommunicationareallphones.Phonesdonotnecessarilydistinguis
48、hmeaning,somedo,somedont,e.g.bI:t&bIt,spIt&spIt.PhonemevAphoneme-isaphonologicalunit;itisaunitofdistinctivevalue;anabstractunit,notaparticular sound,but it is represented by acertainphoneincertainphoneticcontext,e.g.thephoneme/p/canberepresenteddifferentlyinpIt,tIpandspIt.AllophonevAllophones-the ph
49、ones that can represent aphonemeindifferentphoneticenvironments.Phonemic contrast,complementary distribution and minimal pair.Phonemic contrastvPhonemiccontrast-differentordistinctivephonemesareinphonemiccontrast,e.g./b/and/p/inbItandpIt.Complementary distributionvComplementarydistribution-allophone
50、softhesamephonemeareincomplementarydistribution.Theydonotdistinguishmeaning.Theyoccurindifferentphoneticcontexts,e.g.darkl&clearl,aspiratedp&unaspiratedp.Minimal pairvMinimalpair-whentwodifferentformsareidentical(thesame)ineverywayexceptforonesoundsegmentwhichoccursinthesameplaceinthestrings,thetwos