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1、精选优质文档-倾情为你奉上English Lexicology(英语词汇学)Lexicology: is a branch of linguistics, inquiring into the origins and meanings of words.Chapter 1-Basic concepts of words and vocabularyWord: A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function. (1)a minimal fre
2、e form of a language (2)a sound unity (3)a unit of meaning (4)a form that can function alone in a sentenceSound and meaning: almost arbitrary, “no logical relationship between the sound which stands for a thing or an idea and the actual thing and idea itself”Sound and form:不统一的四个原因（1）the English alp
3、habet was adopted from the Romans, which does not have a separate letter to represent each other （2）the pronunciation has changed more rapidly than spelling over the years（3）some of the difference were creates by the early scribes（4）the borrowings is an important channel of enriching the English voc
4、abulary词汇Vocabulary: all the words in a language make up its vocabulary词语分类Classification of English Words：1. By use frequency: basic word stock & non basic vocabulary基本词汇的特征:1)All-National character（全民通用性most important） 2)Stability 3)Productivity（多产性） 4)Polysemy（多义性） 5)Collocability（可搭配性）没有上述特征的词:(
5、1)Terminology(术语) (2)Jargon（行话）(3)slang（俚语）(4)Argot（暗语）（5）Dialectal words (6) Archaisms（古语） (7) Neologisms（新词语）:Neologisms 2. By notion: content words实词 & functional words虚词3. By origin: native words & borrowed wordsNative words（本族语词）: Two other features:(1)neutral in style (2)frequent in useBorrowe
6、d words/Loan words: words taken over from foreign languages.(80% of modern EV)1) denizens(同化词，融入英语): (shirt from skyrta(ON)2) aliens（非同化词/外来词，可以看出源头）: kowtow 3) translation loans(译借词):按其他语言方式组成英语 long time no see / tofu4) semantic loans（借义词）：they are not borrowed with reference to the form,but their
7、 meanings are borrowed pioneer本指开拓者，先引申为先锋。Chapter 2 the development of the English Vocabulary印欧语系The Indo-European Language Family The Eight Groups in Indo-European Family of Languages（8大印欧语群）The Eastern set:(1)The Balto-slavic Group（波罗的-斯拉夫语族）：Russian,Bulgarian,Polish,Czech etc.(2)The Indo-Iranian
8、 Group（印度-伊朗语族）：Hindi,Bengali,Persian etc.(3)The Armenian Group（亚美尼亚语族）：Armenian.(4)The Albanian Group（阿尔巴尼亚语族）：Albanian.The Western set:(5)The Hellenic Group（古希腊语族）：Greek.(6)The Italian Group（意大利语族）：Latin ,Romance languages(French,Italian,Spanish, portuguese,Romanian) etc.(7)The Celtic Group（凯尔特语族）
9、：Irish,Welsh,Breton etc.(8)The Germanic Group（日耳曼语族）：Flemish,German,Dutch,Scandinavian(Norweigian, Swedish,Danish,Icelandic) etc.三个发展阶段The Three Stages of Development of the English Vocabulary:1 Old English (450-1100) (vocabulary 50,000 to 60,000): was I high inflected language.2 Middle English (115
10、0-1500): retaines much fewer inflections （1066法国开始入侵英国）3 Modern English (1500-up to now) 始于印刷术英语外来元素Foreign elements：Latin （war and agriculture/罗马人把基督教带到英国church terms） Greek (science/sports/medicine/politics) French(government and administration/feudalism/religion/morality)Scandinavian 纳维亚人（nouns、p
11、ronouns/birds/sea）Minor elements：Italian、German、Dutch、Spanish and Portuguese、Celtic词汇的发展模式Modes of Vocabulary Development: 1) 创造新词creation：the formation of new words by using the existing.2) 旧词新义semantic change: create many more new useages of the words.3) 借用外来词 borrowing: constitute merely 6 to 7 p
12、ercent of all new wordsChapter 3 Word Formation I词素Morpheme: the smallest functioning unit in the composition of words词素变体Allomorph: is a different variant form of a morpheme，differ in phonological and spelling form, but at the same in function and meaning词素的分类Type of Morpheme（1）Free Morphemes: A fr
13、ee morpheme is one that can stand by itself. (independent).（2）Bound Morpheme: A bound morpheme is one that cannot stand by itself. Free Morpheme =free rootMorpheme(词素)Bound root prefix bound derivational派生 suffix affix inflectional 曲折判断题：affix must be bound morphemes不是所有的词都需要自由词素 per-ceive trans-lat
14、e re-mit大部分词语是派生的词根和词干A root is the basic form of a word which cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity. A stem is the surplus part after the cutting of inflectional morpheme in a word with inflectional morphemes,can be further analyzed, it sometimes could be a root.Chapter 4 Word-F
15、ormation II(构词法)1.Affixation词缀法（Derivation派生法）：the formation of words by adding word-formaing or derivational affixes to stem.（1）Prefixation：Its the formation of new words by adding a prefixes to stems.1)Negative prefixes(否定): un-,non-,in-,dis,a- ,il-,ir-,im-,etc.disobey(not obey)2)Reversative prefi
16、xes（逆反前缀）: un-,de-，dis- etc. unwrap(open)3) Pejorative prefixes: mis（贬义）：mal-, pseudo- etc.misconduct(bad behavior)4) Prefixes of degree or size(程度前缀)：arch-,extra-,hyper-,macro-,micro-,mini-,out-,over-,sub-,super-,sur-,ultra-,under-,ect. overweight5) Prefixes of orientation and attitude（倾向）:contra-,
17、counter-,anti-,pro- 6)Locative prefixes（方位）:extra-,fore-,inter-,intra-,tele-,trans-, etc. extraordinary of time and order（时间和顺序前缀）:fore-,pre-,post-,ex-,re- etc. monorail(one rail)8) Number prefixes（数字前缀）:uni-，mono-, bi-，di-, tri-,multi-，poly- ，semi-，9) Miscellaneous prefixes（混杂前缀）：auto-, neo-, pan-,
18、 vice-.vice-chairman(2)Suffixation（后缀法）: Its the formation of a new word by adding suffixes to stems. 1)noun suffixes 2)adjective suffixes 3)Adverb suffixes 4)verb suffixes2.Compounding复合法 （also called composition）Compounding: is the formation of new words by joining two or more stems Compounds are
19、written in three ways: solid连写(airmail)，hyphenated带连字符(air-conditioning)and open分开写(air force, air raid)Formation of compounds（复合词的形式）（1）noun compounds ：e.g. : air + plane = airplane,flower + pot = flower pot（2）adjective compounds ： e.g. acid + head = acid-head（3）verb compounds ： e.g. house + keep =
20、 housekeep3.Conversion转类法Conversion: is the formation of new words by converting words of one class to another class.（功能转换，又叫零派生.functional shift/zero-derivation）4.Blending拼缀法Blending : is the formation of new words by combining parts of two words or a word plus a part of another word. e.g: smoke +
21、fog = smog, formula + translation = FORTRAN5.Clipping截短法Clipping:is to shorten a longer word by cutting a part off the original and using what remains instead.e.g. plane from airplane, phone from telephone. 四种形式：1).Front clippings (phone from telephone) 2).Back clippings (dorm from dormitory)3).Fron
22、t and back clippings (flu from influenza) 4).Phrase clippings (pop from popular music) 6.Acronymy首字母缩写法Acronymy:is the process of forming new words by joining the initial letters of names of social and political organizations or special noun phrases and technical terms.（1）Initialism（首字母缩写词法）: BBC(fo
23、r British Broadcasting corporation)（2）Acronym（首字母拼音法）: TEFL (teaching English as a foreign language)7.Back-formation（逆生法，逆构词） (greed from greedy)8.Words From Proper Name(专有名词转成法): e.g.: watt（瓦特，电功率单位）Chapter 5 Word MeaningReference(所指):It is the relationship between language and the word. It is the
24、arbitrary and conventional. It is a kind of abstraction, yet with the help of context, it can refer to something specific.Concept（概念）:which is beyond language, is the result of human cognition(认识),reflecting the objective world in the human mind. Sense（意义）:It denotes the relationship inside the lang
25、uage. The sense of an expression is its place in a system of semantic relationships with other expressions in the language.Motivation(理据)：It accounts for the connection between the linguistic symbol and its meaning.1) Onomatopoeic motivation（拟声理据）:words whose sounds suggest their meaning, for these
26、words were creates by imitating the natural sounds or noises. Knowing the sounds of the words means understanding the meaning. E.g.: bang, ping-pong, ha ha.2)Morphological motivation （形态理据）:multi-morphemic words and the meaning of many are the sum total of the morphemes combines. E.g.: airmail, mini
27、skirt .例外：black market, ect.3)Semantic motivation（词义理据）：refers to the mental associations suggested by the conceptual meaning of a word. It explains the connection between the literal sense and figurative sense of the word. E.g:the foot of the mountain(foot)4)Etymological motivation （词源理据）:the histo
28、ry of the word explains the meaning of the word. E.g:pen-feather词义的类别Types of meaning1. 语法意义Grammatical Meaning: indicates the grammatical concept or relationships 2. 词汇意义Lexical Meaning ：Conceptual meaning and associative meaning4types: Connotative 、Stylistic 、Affective（appreciative & pejorative）、
29、Collocative Chapter 6 -Sense relation and semantic field （语义关系和语义场）多义关系的两种研究方法Two approached to polysemy1. 历时方法diachronic approach ：from the diachronic point of view, polysemy is assumed to be the result of growth and development of the semantic structure of one and same word. First meaning is the p
30、rimary meaning , the later meanings are called derived meanings.2. 共时方法synchronic approach : synchronically, polysemy is viewed as the coexistence of various meanings of the same word in a certain historical period of time.基本意义是central meaning , 次要意义是derived meaning.词义的两种发展类型Two processes of develop
31、ment 1. radiation（辐射型）：is a semantic process in which the primary meaning stands at the centre and the secondary meanings proceed out of it in every direction like rayes. (e.g: face, neck)2. 连锁型concatenation:is the semantic process in which the meaning of a word move gradually away from its first se
32、nse by successive shifts until there is not a sign of connection between the sense that is finally developed and that which the term had at the beginning.(e.g:treacle)3. In radiation, each of the derived meaning is directly connected to the primary meaning. In concatenation, each of the later meanin
33、g is related only to the preceding one like chains. Though the latest sense can be traced back to the original, there is no direct connection in between.4. They are closely related, being different stages of the development leading to polysemy. Generally, radiation precedes concatenation. In many ca
34、ses, the two processes work together, complementing each other.Homonymy（同形同音异义关系）:words different in meaning but either identical both in sound and spelling or identical only in sound or spelling. 类别Types of homonyms1）Perfect homonyms一词多义2)Homographs（同形异义词）:同一个词发音不同意思不同words identical only in spelli
35、ng, but different in sound and meaning.(最多最常见)3）Homophones（同音异义词）来源Origins of homonyms 1）change in sound and spelling ：(eare-ear, lang-long, langian-long)2）borrowing (feria-fair, beallu-ball, baller-ball )3）Shortening(缩略): (ad-advertisement,)同音同形异义词和多义词区别The differentiation of Homonyms from Polyseme
36、s1)基本区别 Homonymy refers to different words which happen to share the same form and polysemy are the one and same word which has several distinguishable meanings.2) etymology(词源)：H are from different sources. P are from the same source.3) semantic relatedness(语义关联): The various meanings of polysemant
37、 are correlated and connected to one central meaning. Meanings of different homonymys have nothing to do with one another. In dictionaries, a polysemant has its meaning all listed under one headword whereas homonyms are listed as separate entries.Rhetoric features of homonyms(同形同音异义词的修辞特色)：As homony
38、ms are identical in sound or spelling, particularly homophones, they are often employed to create puns for desired effect of, say, humor, sarcasm or ridicule.Synonymy (同义关系): one of two or more words in the English language which have the same or very nearly the same essential meaning .Types of Syno
39、nymy(同义词的类别) : 1.Absolute synonyms（完全同义词）2.relative synonyms（相对） (e.g: change/alter/vary, stagger/reel/totter, strange/odd/queer)Sources of synonyms(同义词的来源) : 1)Borrowing：(room-chamber, foe-enemy, help-aid, leave-depart, wise-sage, buy-purchase)2)Dialects and regional English 3)Figurative and euphem
40、istic use of words （单词的修饰和委婉法）:occupation/profession-walk of life, dreamer-star-gazer, drunk-elevated, lie-distort of fact.4)Coincidence with idiomatic expressions（与习惯表达一致）:win-gain the upper hand, decide-make up ones mind, finish-get through, hesitate-be in two minds, help-lend one a hand.同义词辨析Disc
41、rimination of Synonyms1.difference in denotation外延. Synonyms may differ in the range and intensity of meaning.(rich-wealthy, work-toil, want-wish-desire)2.difference in connotation内涵. By connotation we mean the stylistic and emotive colouring of words. Some words share the same denotation but differ
42、 in their stylistic appropriateness. (借词：answer-respond, storm-tempest, wood-forest, handy-manual, unlike-dissimilar,homely-domestic, fleshy-carnal.中性词：policeman-constable-bobby-cop, ask-beg-request. 古语词、诗歌：ire/anger, bliss-happiness, forlorn-distresses, dire-dreadful, list-listen, enow-enough, save
43、-expect, mere-lake )3.difference in application. Many words are synonymous in meaning but difference in usage in simple terms. They form different collocations and fit into difference sentence patterns. (allow sb. to do sth.- let sb. do sth. / answer the letter-reply to the letter)反义关系Antonymy :it i
44、s concerned with semantic opposition. Antonyms can be defined as words which are opposite in meaning. Types of Antonyms:1)contradictory terms (矛盾反义词): these antonyms truly represent oppositeness of meaning. 特点：The assertion of one is the denial of the other. Such antonyms are non-gradable. They cann
45、ot be used in comparative degrees and do not allow adverbs of intensity like “very” to qualify them . (e.g: single/married)2)contrary terms（对立反义词）: antonyms of this type are best viewed in terms of a scale running between two poles or extremes.(e.g: old/young, rich/young, big/small) The two opposite
46、s are gradable and one exists in comparison with the other.3)relative terms（关系反义词）： this type consists of relational opposites.（parent/child, husband/wife, employee/employer, sell/buy, receive-give）反义关系的特点Some of the characteristics of antonyms1)antonyms are classified on the basis of semantic oppos
47、ition(语义对立)2)a word which has more than one meaning can have more than one antonym3)antonyms differ in semantic inclusion（语义内涵）4)contrary terms are gradable antonyms，differing in degree of intensity, so each has its own corresponding opposite.(hot/warm: hot-cold/warm-cool)反义词的使用The use of antonyms1）Antonyms are helpful and valuable in defining the meaning of words.2) To express economically the opposite of a particular thought for the sake of contrast.(e.g :now or never, ra