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1、L i ngu i st i cs1.T he scope o f li n guistics:（a b r a n ch o f linguist i cs t h at.）p hone t ic s（语音学）：t he s tud y of ling u i s t i c s pe e ch sounds,h ow t he y a r e produce d,h o w t he y a r e perc e i ve d,andthe i r physica 1 pro p erties.（study of the phon i c medium o f lan g u a g e）
2、p hon o logy:（音位学）the stu d y of h o w spee c h s ou n d s in a1 a nguage form patterns an d how these sou n d s are us e d t o convey mean i n g in li n gu i sti c s communication.morphol o g y:（形态学）th e s tu d y of t h e w o rd stru c t u r e a n dword forma t i on.syn t a x：（句法学）i s t h e b ran c
3、 h o f lingui s tics that studiesthe rules that govern the f orma t io n of sen t e nc e s.s emanti c s:（语义学）th e s t u d y of li n gu i st i c meanin g.p ragm a tics:（语用学）a branch o fling u i s tics that studies the co n text o f 1 an g u a ge us e t o e f fee t s ucces s f u 1 c ommun i cation.Som
4、e distinctions in ling u istics：1）P r e scriptive&d e s c r i p t ivePrescrip t i ve:a i ms to descri b e a n d a nalyze the lang u age peo p le a ctu a 1 ly u seD es c ript i ve：aims to 1 ay d o w n r ules for“c o rrect&standar d“b e hav i o r in usin g lan g u age.(doc t or)2)Syn c h roni c&dia c
5、hro n ic 共时的&历时的S y n c hroni c:the de s cri p tion o f a 1 angua ge at s omepoint o f t i me i n h i s to r y.Di a c h r o ni c:th e des c ri p tio n o f a la n gu a ge a s it chan g e sth r ough t i me.3)Langue&pa ro 1 e 语言&言语L a n gue:r e f e r s t o th e a bstr a ct linguisti c sys t em sharedb
6、y a 1 1 the m e m b ers o f a s pee c h c o mm u n i ty.Parole:r e f e rs to t h e r e al i z a tio n o f 1 a n g u a ge i n ac tual u se.4)Compete nee&pe rfo rmance 语言能力&语言运用Com p e te n c e:th e id e a 1 u s e rs knowledge of t h e r u 1 e sof h i s langua g ePerform a n c e：the a c tual realiza t
7、 i o n of thi s knowl e d g e inling u istic c ommuni c ati o n.Design f eatu re s o f language:1)a rbi t rarine s s:(任意性)mean s t here i s n o logical c o nnectionb et w e e n m e ani n g s an d s o und s.2)P r odu c ti v ity:it ma k es possible the c o ns t ruct i o n a ndint e rpr e tat i o n o f
8、 n e w signals by i t s u s er s.3)Dua 1 ity:(双重，性)dua 1 ity o f st r u c tur e or dou b 1 e ar t i cul atio n of la n gu a g e e n ables u s er s to ta 1 k about anyt h ingwith i n their k n o w 1 edg e.4)D i spl a cemen t:language can b e use d to refer t o cont e x ts remo ved f r om t h e imme d
9、 i ate s i t u a t i o n s o f thespeaker.不受时空限制5)C ul t u ra 1 t ransmi s sion 文化传播(eg:狼孩)2.Functio n s of l a nguage:1)Desc r ipti v e f unct i on:it i s the f u ncti o n to con v ey fa c t u al i nformation,whic h can be ass e rted o r de n ied,andi n s ome cases e ve n veri f ied.2)E xpr e s siv
10、e fu n ctio n:supp 1 i es in f ormation about th e u se rs feel i n g s,prefer e nc e s,pr e judic e s a nd v alue s.3)S o c i al fun c t i on:serv e s to establ i sh and ma i ntai n soc i al re 1 ation s be t w e e n pe o pl e.英 语 辅 音 分 类Labial双层音lio-dental唇 齿音Dental齿音Ab熨二I M卤槽音Palatal唇音Velar软娉音Glo
11、ttal声 门 音Stops爆破音VLPtkVDbdgFricatives摩 摞 音VLshVDezAffricates塞 爆 音VLf6t jVDVe）d3Nasals鼻音VDmnLiquids流音VDlxGlides得音VDwj-4工*=H口，v u n c is，ana open vowels.The close vowels are I U：and o ;the semi-close vowels arc e and 3：,the senii-,e n vowels are a and 3：and the open vowels are ae Q A and OI .The follo
12、wing diagram summarises our classification byA third criterion that is often used in the classification of vowels ise shape of the lips.In English,all 山 仟。nt v：e l s;上Pho n e:（音素）i s a phonet i c u ni tPh o nem e:（音位）is a p h onolog i c a 10 r se g ment.u nit.I t is a uni t t h a ti s of di s tinct
13、i v e value.Itis a n abstract unit.3.Mo r phemes 词素一the minimal u n i t s of me a ningT h e smal 1 est un i t 0 f lang u age tha t c a r ri e s i n f orma t i o nabout meaning o r fun c t i onF ree morpheme:a mo r ph e me whic h ca n be a word by i t se 1 f.Bound m o rp h e me:a mor p hem e must be
14、atta c h e d t o anot h e ro ne.D erivation a 1 mo r phemes:(衍生词素)t he morphemes w h ich changethe c ategor y or g ram ma t ical c 1 ass of wor d s.They are conjoin ed to o ther morphemes/w o rd s,ne w words are der i ved or form ed.(-e n,-ate,-i c,-ou s,-ly,-tion,-sive,-er)标出Infl e cti o nal morp h
15、 em e s:(曲折词素)the y a r e attached to wo rds o r mo r ph e mes,but t h ey n e ver change their s y ntact i c c a teg ory.(-s,-e r,e s t,-ed,-ing)C)标出4.C ategory：re f ers t o a grou p o f 1 i n g uisti c items whichfulfill th e s ame o r simila r f u notion s i n a part i cu 1 a rlangu a g e such as
16、a s entenc e,a n o u n p h ase ora v e rb.No n t r a d iti o nal c a te g or i es:d ete r mi n e r(De t)限定词，degr e e(Deg),qua 1 i f i er(Q u a)Ph r as e e 1 ement s:speci f ier s,complement s(XP Rule),mod ifiers.De ep struct re:fo r med by th e XP rule i n a cc o rdance w i t hthe h e ads sub c at e
17、 goriza t i o n pr o p e r ties.没变形 陈述句Surf a c e stru c tur e5.Le x ical me a ning：S e n s e:i s c o n cerned with th e in h erent meaning o f a li n guis ti c form,th e colie c t i o n of all its features;i t is ab s tract and de-c o n t extu a lized.Eg：d o g -gene r a 1 meaning of do g,f e a tur
18、e sR e fe r ence:m e an s what a li n g u is t i c form r e fer s to inthe real,phys i c a l world.Eg;0 ne p articu 1 a r/c ertai n do g e x i s te n t in t h e s ituat i on,known to ea ch o t h e r6.Contex t:i t i s g e n e ral 1 y co n s i dered a s c o nsti t u t e d byt h e knowle d ge s ha r e
19、d b y the s p e aker and the he a rer.（John Firth）S p ee c h a ct theor y：（John Austin）Locut i o n ary a ct:（言 内行为）is th e a c t o f utt e rin g w o r d s,phr a s es a n d c 1 au s e s.I 1 locuti o n a ry a c t:（言外之意）i s t h e act o f expressing thesp e a kers i n tention;it is t h e act of pe r f o
20、 r med i n sa y ing somet hin g.Perlocut i on a r y act：（言后行为）i s t h e act of performed by or re su It i n g f r om say i n g somet h ing;i t is the consequence of,or th e chang e bro u ght a bout by t h e uttera n ee.C o operative prin c i p 1 e C P(P a ul Gri c e)The ma*im of qua nt i ly:Say no l
21、es s than the conv e rsation requir e s.Say n o m o re tha n the conversation req u ir e s.The maxim of qua 1 Uy：Dont s ay what y o u be 1 ieve to b e f a 1 s e.Dont say t hings for which yo u lack e v id e n c e.The maxim o f ma nner：D ont be o b s c u re.D o nt b e a mb i guou s.B e b r ief.Be ord
22、 e r ly.Th e max i m o f r e lev a n c e:B e releva n t.7.La n guag e changeA d d i t ion of new word s：1)C o i n a ge:创新词Spy w a re di g i t a 1 came r a cybe r citiz e n mous e po tato2)C 1 i p p e d wor d s:缩略词Lab-1 a borat o r y g ym-gym n asium f r idgerefr i gerato rb u r g e rhamb u rge r3)B
23、1 e nd i n g:紧缩法Smo g-smoke+f o g brun c h-b reakfast+lunch c a m c o rder-camera+recorder4)Ac r o nyms：首字母缩略词C E O c hi e f e xec u tive officer IT in f o r ma t io n tec h n ologyEU VIP B 2B CPI5)B a c k-f o r ma t ion：逆构词法T o edi t/b eg/baby-s i t/donate/orient/hawk/avi a t e/a p p reciate6)F u n
24、et i o n sh i ftn.-v.T o k nee/bug/tape v.-n.a h o Id/r e je c t/ret reatadj.-v.to cool/n ar r ow/dim/s 1 ow7)B o rrowingB o nus t ragedy ski r t e du c a t ion cycle pri n ce gu it ar ba 1 c o nyB a 1 1 o on opera p u m p t e a tofu kowtow sampan zeroK u ngfu mahjong spagh e t t i biz a r r e g a r
25、age8)Deriva t i o n 派生词F ixa b 1 er efusal e xci t i n g i mpressi v e d i s 1 ike rest a t ea nti p o llutionunfa i r r e a l i z e ha p p i n e s s9)Compo u n d s 复合词B i t t ersweet rai n b o w spoonfeed s 1 ee p w alk inbornoff-li c en s eU n d ertake with o u t landl a d y handove r wh i te w a
26、sh8.R e gister 语域Field of discour s e 话语范围：refe r s t o what is g oing o n:on t h e ar e a o f op e r a t i on o f t h e lan g u a ge act i vit y.T en o r o f d i s cou r s e 话语基调：refers t o t h e role o f relatio nsh i p in t he s itu a tio n in q ues t ion:w ho th e p a r t i c ip ant s in the com
27、munication g r o ups ar e and w hat rela t ionshipthey s t a nd to each o t her.M o de of dis c o u r s e 话语方式：refers t o the means of commun i cati o n.I t is concerned w ith h o w communicat i o n i s car r ied out.9.Sap i r-wh o rf h ypot h es i s(S W H)萨丕尔沃尔夫假说L a nguage filters p eop 1 e s perc
28、 e pti o n an g th e w a y th e ycate g oriz e the i r e x periences.1 0.Lan g uage A c q u isitionTheor i e s of c h ild 1 a ng u age acquis i t i o n：1)The b e ha v io r is tIm i tat i o n and pra c tic e a re pr e 1 i mina r y,and di s c r imin ation an d gen e r a liz a t i o n a re crucia 1 to
29、1 a ngu a ge devel o pment.(ha b i t-forming)Bu t it fails to expla i n how child r e n a c quir e more c o mpl ex g r amm a tic a 1 struc t ures of t he lang u ag e.2)Th e i n n a t i stLangua g e A c qui s i tion d e v i c e(LAD)C h oms k yI t pr o pose d th a t hum a n beings a r e bo r n with an
30、 i n n atea bility.It s ai d t h at t h e “th e b lack b o x“contain p ri n ciples that are u ni vers al t o all hum a n 1 angu a ge.Univ e rsal G r amma r(UG)3)The i n t e r a cti o ni s tI t h o ld s t hat lan g ua g e dev e 1 ops a s a resul t o f thecomplex i nter p la y b e t ween the h um a n
31、characteristi c s ofthe c h i Id and the envir o nme n t i n which he grows,mo th e r ese chi 1 d d i r ected speech(C D S)c a re taker ta 1 kC r itical P eriod H y po t h e s i s(CPH)E r ic Lennebe r gLAD w orks su c ce s sf u 1 1 y only w hen it is stimu 1 ated a tthe right time-a sp e c i fic and
32、 limit e d t ime per i od fo r languageac q u i sition.Tw o ver s ions;S trong one suggests tha t c h ild r e n m u s t a c quir e t heir firstla n g uage b y pu b er t y or th e y will ne v e r be able t o learnfrom subs e que n t exposure.Th e w e a k h o ld s t h at language 1 e arning will b e m
33、orediffi c ult an d inc o mplete a f ter p u b erty.1 1.Se c ond L a ngua g e Acquis i t ionPosit i v e t r a n sf e r 正迁移 f aci 1 itateNeg a tive tr a nsfer 负迁移 i nterfere o r h i n d erI n te r langu a ge 中介语It w a s e s tablis h e d as 1 e arners,in d ep e ndent sys t em of th eseco n d 1 a n g u
34、 age,which is of nei t h e r th e nati v e la n g u a g eno r the se c o n d lan g ua g e,bu t a c o n t in u um or appro x imationfrom on e ex t r eme of his n at i ve 1 an g uage to the othe r of th eseco n d language.Fossil i za t ion 石化现象I t is a p r o ces s o c cu r ri n g from time to time i n
35、 whic h incorrec t li n g u is t i c feature s b e c o me a perm a n ent pa r t of t h eway a p e r s o n s p e a ks or w rit e s a 1 ang u age.Acqui s i t i on 习得I t is a su b con s c i ous process wit h out m i n ute 1 e a rnin g of g r ammatica 1 rules.Le a rn i ng 学习It r efers to consci o us eff o rts t o leam th e s e cond 1 a ngu a g e kno wledg e b y learnin g the rules and ta 1 k ing about t he r ules.