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1、会计学1研究方法讲座研究方法讲座Pre-writingPlease write down your plan for your research.第1页/共43页OUTLINEn nDefinition of research.n nCategorization of research paradigms.n nStructure of a research report.n nEvaluation of a research project.n nYour research project.第2页/共43页What Is Researchn nResearch:“a systematic a
2、pproach to searching for answers to questions(Hatch and Lazarton,1991:9).what is meant by systematic?what is meant by questions?what is meant by answers?第3页/共43页研究研究规范研究规范研究实征研究实征研究质的研究质的研究量的研究量的研究研究的分类研究的分类(陈向明陈向明)定性研究定性研究行动研究行动研究学术研究学术研究第4页/共43页Different categorization n nOppositional categorizati
3、on.n nFour-parameter categorization(Van Lier,1988)n nMore specific/detailed categorization第5页/共43页Empirical Researchn nA specific and strict definition:“Research is a systematic process of inquiry consisting 3 elements:(1)a question,problem or hypothesis,(2)data,(3)analysis and interpretation of dat
4、a.”(Nunan,1992:3)n nIt is generally agreed,however,that“empirical research”is data-driven,that is,the inquiry is based on systematic collection and analysis of data.第6页/共43页4 parameters in research design(Van Lier 1988)4 parameters in research design(Van Lier 1988)HIGHLY SELECTIVENON-SELECTIVEINTERV
5、ENTIONNON-INTERVENTIONCONTROLLINGMEASURINGASKING/DOINGWATCHING第7页/共43页Chaudron(1988)n nPsychometric traditionn nInteraction analysisn nDiscourse analysisn nEthnography Data collection第8页/共43页Grotjahn(1987)n nTwo pure research paradigms:1.exploratory-interpretive 2.analytical-nomologicaln nFive mixed
6、 forms.1.Experimental-qualitative-interpretative 2.Experimental-qualitative-statistics 3.Exploratory-qualitatve-statistical 4.Exploratory-quantitative-statistical 5.Experimental-quantitative-interpretive第9页/共43页Quantitative(or Positivist)orientationsQuantitative(or Positivist)orientations n nObjecti
7、vism:Assume that there is an objective Truth about social life that Objectivism:Assume that there is an objective Truth about social life that can be measured.(VS Subjectivism and experientialism)can be measured.(VS Subjectivism and experientialism)n nQuestions:Start with Pre-formulated hypotheses,t
8、hough these can be Questions:Start with Pre-formulated hypotheses,though these can be formed after observations of real behavior in real situations.formed after observations of real behavior in real situations.n nSystematic:Are concerned largely with controlling variables.Systematic:Are concerned la
9、rgely with controlling variables.n nAnswers:Use statistical ways of measuring and quantifying these variables Answers:Use statistical ways of measuring and quantifying these variables(Psychometric).(Psychometric).n nResearchers:Are objective in that the researcher is not personally involved Research
10、ers:Are objective in that the researcher is not personally involved with the participants or the outcomes.with the participants or the outcomes.n nGeneralisability:Are designed so that the results are generalizable.(part of Generalisability:Are designed so that the results are generalizable.(part of
11、 answer)answer)第10页/共43页Qualitative(or Naturalistic)TraditionsQualitative(or Naturalistic)Traditionsn nRelativism:Assume that truth is relative,and that knowledge is provisional.Relativism:Assume that truth is relative,and that knowledge is provisional.n nQuestions:Start with provisional questions,w
12、hich are open to change as the study Questions:Start with provisional questions,which are open to change as the study progresses,rather than starting with fixed hypotheses.progresses,rather than starting with fixed hypotheses.n nThese questions are answered through systematic empirical observation o
13、f specified These questions are answered through systematic empirical observation of specified events in their natural context,rather than in a controlled or experimental situation.events in their natural context,rather than in a controlled or experimental situation.n nAre subjective is the sense th
14、at the researcher is necessarily involved with the Are subjective is the sense that the researcher is necessarily involved with the processes and outcomes of the study.processes and outcomes of the study.n nObservations are processed in a variety of ways,not necessarily statistical.Observations are
15、processed in a variety of ways,not necessarily statistical.n nAssume that there is value in holistic study whose insights are not necessarily Assume that there is value in holistic study whose insights are not necessarily generalisable from the individual study.generalisable from the individual stud
16、y.第11页/共43页SummarySummaryQuantitativeQuantitativen nPositivismPositivismn nControlledControlledn n“Objective”“Objective”n n Removed from data,etic Removed from data,etic viewviewn nVerification oriented Verification oriented(Deductivism)(Deductivism)n nTest hypothesisTest hypothesisn nOutcome orient
17、edOutcome orientedn nHard&replicable dataHard&replicable datan nGeneralisable Generalisable n n将复杂的问题简化将复杂的问题简化将复杂的问题简化将复杂的问题简化QualitativeQualitativen nPhenomenologismPhenomenologismn nNaturalisticNaturalisticn n“Subjective”“Subjective”n nClose to data,emic viewClose to data,emic viewn nDiscovery or
18、iented Discovery oriented (Inductivism)(Inductivism)n nGenerate hypothesisGenerate hypothesisn nProcess orientedProcess orientedn nRich&deep dataRich&deep datan nUngeneralizableUngeneralizablen n将简单的问题复杂将简单的问题复杂将简单的问题复杂将简单的问题复杂化化化化第12页/共43页Quantitative or Qualitative?1.学生的性别与其作文中情态动学生的性别与其作文中情态动词的使用
19、是什么关系？词的使用是什么关系？2、学习者是如何、学习者是如何“选择选择”自己的自己的学习策略的？学习策略的？3、学生的英语口语与自信之间是、学生的英语口语与自信之间是什么关系？什么关系？4、在英语专业学生看来，、在英语专业学生看来，“英语英语专业专业”对他们意味着什么？对他们意味着什么？第13页/共43页Empirical Research&Language Empirical Research&Language StudiesStudiesn nNot all language studies will employ empirical approaches.Not all languag
20、e studies will employ empirical approaches.Some studies are Some studies are theoreticaltheoretical or or speculativespeculative.n nEmpirical methods are commonly used in certain subfields Empirical methods are commonly used in certain subfields of linguistics,e.g.,applied linguistics,sociolinguisti
21、cs,of linguistics,e.g.,applied linguistics,sociolinguistics,psycholinguistics,and anthropological linguistics.psycholinguistics,and anthropological linguistics.n nEmpirical research methods are commonly used in social Empirical research methods are commonly used in social sciences,e.g.,sociology,psy
22、chology,anthropology,sciences,e.g.,sociology,psychology,anthropology,education,and communication studies.education,and communication studies.第14页/共43页Types of Empirical Researchn nDescriptive researchn nHistorical researchn nCorrelational researchn nCausal-comparative researchn nExperimental researc
23、h第15页/共43页Descriptive Researchn nDescriptive research involves collecting data in order to answer questions concerning the current status of the subject of the study.A descriptive study reports the way things are.n nE.g.:To count the type and frequency of teachers questions used over a one week peri
24、od in one classroom第16页/共43页Descriptive research includesn nSelf-report research(e.g.,survey&developmental studies)n nObservational research(e.g.,case studyðnography).第17页/共43页Surveyn nWith surveys,a With surveys,a large samplelarge sample of individuals answer,in of individuals answer,in either
25、written or spoken form,a series of questions on a either written or spoken form,a series of questions on a specific issuespecific issue.n nAn attempt to collect data from members of a population An attempt to collect data from members of a population in order to determine the current status of that
26、population in order to determine the current status of that population with respect to one or more variableswith respect to one or more variablesn nE.g.Political pollsters use surveys to gauge the feeling of E.g.Political pollsters use surveys to gauge the feeling of voters towards the various polit
27、ical parties;social voters towards the various political parties;social surveyors might try to gauge the feelings of a community surveyors might try to gauge the feelings of a community towards a local initiative,towards a local initiative,第18页/共43页Developmental Studiesn nDevelopmental studies are c
28、oncerned with behavior variables that differentiate subjects at different levels of age,growth,or maturation.n nDevelopmental studies can be either longitudinal or cross-sectional.n nE.g.Attitudes towards“comrade”before 1997 and after 1997 in Hong Kong.第19页/共43页Case Studyn nA case study is the in-de
29、pth investigation of an individual,group,or institution.n nThe primary purpose of a case study is to determine the factors,and relationships among the factors,that have resulted in the current behavior or status of the subject of the study.n nThe purpose of a case study is to determine why,not just
30、what.n nE.g.Halliday(1975):the language development of his own child.第20页/共43页Strengths of Case studyn nDeep and rich data.n nStrong in reality.n nGeneralisability(analytical,not statistical)n nMultiplicity of viewpoints(Holistic)n nImmediate usen nAccessibility第21页/共43页Ethnographyn nEthnography,as
31、a sub-branch of the discipline of anthropology,is the study of the lives and the cultures of a particular group of human beings as they operate in their natural contexts.n nEthnography involves intensive data collection,that is,collection of data on many variables over an extended period of time,in
32、a naturalistic setting.n nE.g.B.K.Malinowski(1923):Malinowskis Ethnography(context of culture).第22页/共43页Historical Researchn nHistorical research is the systematic collection and evaluation of data related to past occurrences in order to find out the causes,effects,or trends of those events that may
33、 help to explain present events and anticipate future events.n nE.g.The development of V/T form in French in Canada since 1960第23页/共43页Correlational Researchn nCorrelational research involves collecting data in order to determine whether,and to what degree,a relationship exists between two or more q
34、uantifiable variables.n nE.g.EFL learners IQ and EFL learners CET scores.第24页/共43页EXAMPLE(1)大学生俄语学习动机研究大学生俄语学习动机研究11单荣荣单荣荣 周海燕周海燕提要提要提要提要 本文拟以高一虹教授的成果为基础，通过大样本本文拟以高一虹教授的成果为基础，通过大样本的调查分析，对中国大学俄语专业本科生的学习动的调查分析，对中国大学俄语专业本科生的学习动机进行研究。通过统计分析，俄语学习动机可以归机进行研究。通过统计分析，俄语学习动机可以归纳为就业前景动机、中学俄语优势动机、文化情结纳为就业前景动机、中
35、学俄语优势动机、文化情结动机，内在兴趣动机、外部影响动机、学习情境动动机，内在兴趣动机、外部影响动机、学习情境动机及被迫型动机等七大类。并以学校类型、性别、机及被迫型动机等七大类。并以学校类型、性别、年级为自变量，俄语学习动机类型（斜交旋转因子年级为自变量，俄语学习动机类型（斜交旋转因子分析得出的因子值）为因变量，对不同组别的学习分析得出的因子值）为因变量，对不同组别的学习动机类型进行分析。动机类型进行分析。关键词关键词关键词关键词 俄语学习俄语学习俄语学习俄语学习 动机研究动机研究动机研究动机研究 第25页/共43页Causal-Comparative Researchn nCausal-c
36、omparative research(or ex post facto research)is the research in which the researcher attempts to determine the cause,or reason,for existing differences in the behavior or status of groups of individuals.n nE.g.The motivation and the learners CET results第26页/共43页Experimental Researchn nExperimental
37、research is that research in which the researcher vs at least one independent variable,controls other relevant variables,and observes the effect on one or more dependent variables.n nE.g.The effect of the adoption of task-based teaching methods on the communicative competence of EFL learners(the sam
38、e teachers,the same level of English,etc.)第27页/共43页EXAMPLE(2)Shifting Identities and Switching CodesShifting Identities and Switching Codes11-A case study of the classroom code-switching of an EFL teacher-A case study of the classroom code-switching of an EFL teacherYi Liu Yi FengYi Liu Yi FengABSTR
39、ACT:ABSTRACT:Code-switching has been regarded as a marker of bilingual and Code-switching has been regarded as a marker of bilingual and multilingual speakers social identities.Based on the code-switching instances of multilingual speakers social identities.Based on the code-switching instances of a
40、 Chinese EFL teacher in ten hours teaching sessions and the autobiography of a Chinese EFL teacher in ten hours teaching sessions and the autobiography of the teacher on her English learning and teaching experience,this paper discusses the teacher on her English learning and teaching experience,this
41、 paper discusses how code-switching is related to the shifting of the teachers professional how code-switching is related to the shifting of the teachers professional identities.With the structuration and duality theories of Anthony Giddens(1984,identities.With the structuration and duality theories
42、 of Anthony Giddens(1984,1991)and dramaturgical theory of Erving Goffman(1959)as theoretical 1991)and dramaturgical theory of Erving Goffman(1959)as theoretical framework,the paper also explores how the teachers professional identities are framework,the paper also explores how the teachers professio
43、nal identities are constructed through a reflexive,constructive and self-monitoring process and constructed through a reflexive,constructive and self-monitoring process and how her professional roles are performed in the classroom.It is hoped that the how her professional roles are performed in the
44、classroom.It is hoped that the study on the relationship of code-switching and EFL teachers identities may study on the relationship of code-switching and EFL teachers identities may explore a new perspective for the research on foreign language teacher explore a new perspective for the research on
45、foreign language teacher development in China.development in China.KEY WORDS:KEY WORDS:code-switching,professional identity,foreign language education,code-switching,professional identity,foreign language education,constructivism constructivism 第28页/共43页Components in a Research Reportn nAbstract&Key
46、wordsn nIntroductionn nMethodn nResults&Discussionn nConclusionn nAcknowledgementsn nReferencesn nAppendices第29页/共43页Introductionn nBackground to the questionn nLiterature reviewn nStatement of research questions (Research hypotheses)第30页/共43页Methodn nSubjects(Sampling,informants,participants)n nDat
47、a collection methods:questionaires,interview,observation,stimulated recalls,diary studies,narrative inquiryn nMaterials and proceduren nData analysis method第31页/共43页Results and Discussionn nResultsn nDiscussion第32页/共43页Conclusionn nSummary of research findingsn nImplicationsn nResearch limitationsn
48、nSuggestions for future research第33页/共43页Acknowledgementsn n“We gratefully acknowledge the help of Batia Laufer who not only discussed the issues with us but also kindly sent us a number of her related publications.We are also grateful to Pat Snipe for her comments on an early version of this articl
49、e.”第34页/共43页Referencesn nBrown,H.D.(1981).Affective factors in second Brown,H.D.(1981).Affective factors in second language learning.In J.Alatis,H.Altman,&P.Alatis language learning.In J.Alatis,H.Altman,&P.Alatis(Eds.),(Eds.),The second language classroom:Directions for the The second language class
50、room:Directions for the eightieseighties(pp.111-129).New York:Oxford University (pp.111-129).New York:Oxford University Press.Press.n nWardhaugh,R.(1986).Wardhaugh,R.(1986).An introduction to sociolinguistics.An introduction to sociolinguistics.Oxford:Blackwell.Oxford:Blackwell.n nNorton,B.(1997).La