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1、Syntactic Relation（句法结构）Syntax(句法）Its the study of the rules governing the way different constituents are combined to form sentences in a language,or the study of the interrelationships between elements in sentence structure它研究的是句子构造中各个成分之间的相互关系第1页/共52页Syntactic RelationPositional RelationRelation o
2、f Substitutability Relation of Co-occurrence第2页/共52页Positional RelationFor language to fulfill its communicative function,it must have a way to mark the grammatical roles of the various phrases that can occur in a clause.第3页/共52页The students smile to the teacher.NP NPThe students smile to the teache
3、r.NP NPThe students smile to the teacher.NP NPThe students smile to the teacher.NP VP S V O 第4页/共52页Positional RelationPositional relation,or WORD ORDER,refers to the sequential arrangement of words in a language.eg.the,boy,ball,the,kickedThe boy kicked the ball *Boy the ball kicked the*The ball kic
4、ked the boy第5页/共52页Word order is among the three basic ways(word order,genetic and classifications)to classify languages in the world.There are totally six possible types of language,they are SVO,VSO,SOV,OVS,OSV and VOS.English SVO第6页/共52页Syntactic relations句法关系relations of position位置关系位置关系relations
5、 of substitutability替代关系替代关系relations of co-occurrence同性关系同性关系第7页/共52页EX:The _ smiles.man boy girl 第8页/共52页4.1.2 Relation of Substitutability替代关系The Relation of Substitutability refers to classes or sets of words substitutable for each other grammatically in sentences with the same structure.可替代性的关系
6、是指在句子中，语法上具有相同结构的词类或词组相互替代的关系。第9页/共52页It also refers to groups of more than one word which may be jointly substitutable grammatically for a single word of a particular set.它也指不止一个单词的词组在语法上可以连带替代单个单词的特定集合。第10页/共52页In(a)one can make a choice from the nominal groups,whereas in(b)one can make a choice f
7、rom the adverbial.(a)strong man The tallest boy smiles pretty girl(b)yesterday He went there last week the day before第11页/共52页This is also called Associative Relations(联想关系）by Saussure(Ferdinand de Saussure(18571913)瑞士语言学家，现代语言学理论的奠基者),and Paradigmatic Relations（聚合关系）by Hjemslev(丹麦语言学家,哥本哈根学派的创始人和主要
8、理论家).To make it more understandable,they are called Vertical Relations（垂直关系）or Choice Relations.第12页/共52页They eat.Eat apple.They eat apple.第13页/共52页1.3 Relation of Co-occurrence同性关系It means that words of different sets of clauses may permit,or require,the occurrence of a word of another set or class
9、 to form a sentence or a particular part of a sentence.句子中的不同部分的各类词允许或要求允许或要求与另外一个词类的搭配使用，这样才能组成一个完整的句子或是句子中的某一特定成分。第14页/共52页For instance,a nominal phrase can be preceded by a determiner and adjective(s)and followed by a verbal phrase.第15页/共52页n nRelations of co-occurrence partly Relations of co-occ
10、urrence partly belong to syntagmatic relationsbelong to syntagmatic relations（组合（组合（组合（组合关系）关系）关系）关系）,partly to paradigmatic,partly to paradigmatic relationsrelations（聚合关系）（聚合关系）（聚合关系）（聚合关系）.第16页/共52页简言之，共现就是句子构建的环境，在这个环境中一个结构体能够与其他相关成分一起出现，即合乎语法又符合规范。第17页/共52页4.2 Grammatical Construction and Its Co
11、nstituents(语法结构与成分）4.2.1 Grammatical ConstructionGrammatical Construction or Construct can be used to mean any syntactic（句法的）construct which is assigned one or more conventional functions in a language.第18页/共52页Any syntactic string of words ranging from sentences over phrasal structures to certain c
12、omplex lexemes.(词的单位）an apple(NP)ate an apple(VP)Mary ate an apple.(S)第19页/共52页On the level of syntax,we distinguish for any construction in a language its external and internal properties.The external syntax of a construction refers to the properties of the construction as a whole,that is to say,an
13、ything speakers know about the construction that is relevant to the larger syntactic contexts in which it is welcome.第20页/共52页For instance,the different terms such as clausal type,phrasal type are assigned to the properties of the constructions respectively.外部句法特征是指整个结构所具有的特征，也就是说，说话者所知道的在个别更大的句法上下文
14、中与此结构相关的方方面面。例如：小句的类型，短语类型等。第21页/共52页The internal syntax of a construction is really a description of the constructions make-up with the terms such as subject,predicate,noun,determiner,etc.句子的内部结构是指对结构组织成分的描述，如：助主语，谓语，宾语等。第22页/共52页Mary(subject)ate (verb)an apple.(object)this(determiner)edition(noun)
15、Subject Verb Object(clausal type)Determiner Noun(phrasal type)internalexternalexternalinternalexternal第23页/共52页Immediate ConstituentsConstituent is a term used in structural sentence analysis for every linguistic unit，which is a part of a larger linguistic unit.成分，作为一个术语，指的是用于句子结构分析的一个语言单位,它是比其更大的语言
16、单位的一部分。第24页/共52页The boy ate the apple A(Sentence)B(the boy)C(ate the apple)第25页/共52页In the case of the example above,B(the boy)and C(ate the apple),are joined to form a hierarchically higher constituent A,then B and C are said to be immediate constituent of A.在上面的例子中，如果两个成分B（the boy）和C（ate the apple
17、)连接构成了更大的成分A(“S”,在此表示句子），那么B和C就说A的直接成分。The immediate constituents themselves can be constructions of specific types,for instance,the nominal phrase“The boy”can be further analyzed into“The(Determiner)+boy(Noun)”.Thus,“The boy”is the construction of a nominal phrase,whereas“The”and“boy”are its consti
18、tuents.第26页/共52页A（Sentence)B(the boy)C(ate the apple)This tree contains three Nodes.The top-most node,A,is the mother of the two lower nodes,B and C.B and C are the daughters of the same mother,and so we refer to them as Sister nodes.The simple tree in the above represents a constituent of category
19、A which is composed of two parts,one of category B and the other of category C.第27页/共52页To dismantle（拆分）a grammatical construction in this way is called Immediate Constituent Analysis or IC analysis.第28页/共52页语法范畴（syntactic categories)是指在符合语法范畴的前提下能够相互替换的一类词语。例如，A naughty boy broke the window.A naugh
20、ty boy 可以由he,a man,Tom等词替换。所有这些词属于同一句法范畴，即名词短语（缩写为NP），句子其余部分，broke the window即为动词短语（缩略为VP),其他的句法范畴包括如下：第29页/共52页Word-level Phrasal N=noun NP=noun phraseA=adjective AP=adjective phraseV=verb VP=verb phraseP=preposition PP=preposition phraseDet=determiner S=sentence or clause Adv=adverbConj=conjunctio
21、n第30页/共52页A tree diagram is used to represent the constituent structure of a grammatical unit，syntactic categories are used to label the nodes.例如，The boy ate the apple.第31页/共52页Tree diagram(树形图）S NP VP Det N V NPDet N The boy ate the apple NP(det.+n.)+V+NP(det.+n.)第32页/共52页BracketingIn contrast to t
22、ree diagram,Bracketing is not so common,but it is an economic notation in representing the constituent structure of a grammatical unit.（The)（boy）)（ate）（the)（apple）第33页/共52页exercise指出下列这些句子每个词的范畴1、That glass suddenly broke.2、The customer requested for a cold beer.Answer:1 NP(det.+n.)+adv.+V 2 NP(det.
23、+n.)+V+PP(prep.+det.+adj.+n.)第34页/共52页4.2.3 Endocentric and Exocentric ConstructionsThe syntactic constructions analyzed are of two main types:endocentric structure(向心结构）and exocentric structure(离心结构）,depending on their distribution and relation between their constituent.第35页/共52页Head or center“中心词”
24、也可叫“定位词”，就是这句话（这段话）紧紧围绕着进行论述的词。第36页/共52页Endocentric ConstructionEndocentric construction（向心结构）is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent to that of one or more of its constituents,i.e.,a word or a group of words,which serves as a definable centre（中心）or head（中心词）向心结构是指该结构的分布在功能上相当于它的一个活多个成分
25、，如，一个词或一个词组，在功能方面它们都可作为一个可定义的核心或中心。第37页/共52页Usually noun phrases,verb phrases and adjective phrases belong to endocentric types because the constituent items are subordinate to the Head.第38页/共52页第39页/共52页Exocentric Constructions(离心结构）Exocentric construction（离心结构）refers to a group of syntactically re
26、lated words where none of the words is functionally equivalent to the group as a whole,that is,there is no definable“Centre”or“Head”inside the group.离心结构由一组句法上相关的词构成，但其任何成分的功能都不与这个词组作为一个整体时的功能相同，即该词组没有可定义的“核心”或“中心”第40页/共52页usually including:the basic sentence（基本句）,the prepositional phrase（介词短语）,the
27、predicate(verb+object)construction（谓语结构）the connective(be+complement)construction（系表结构）.第41页/共52页The boy smiled.(Neither constituent can substitute for the sentence structure as a whole.)He hid behind the door.He kicked the ball.John seemed angry.第42页/共52页conclusionEndocentric constructionExocentric
28、 constructioncriterionhead（中心词）includenoun phrases,verb phrases and adjective phrasesthe prepositional phrasethe predicate construction,and the connective construction第43页/共52页Coordination（并列关系）and Subordination（从属关系）第44页/共52页Coordination is a common syntactic pattern in English and other languages
29、formed by grouping together two or more categories of the same type with the help of a conjunction such as and,but and or.第45页/共52页And these two or more words or clauses have equivalent syntactic status,each of the separate constituents can stand for the original construction functionally.第46页/共52页-
30、Coordination has four important properties:no limit on the number of coordinated categories before the conjunction;a category at any level can be coordinated;the categories must be of the same type;the category type of the coordinate phrase is identical to the category type of the elements being con
31、joined.第47页/共52页Coordination of NPs:NP the lady or NP the tigerCoordination of VPs:VP go to the library and VP read a book Coordination of PPs:PP down the stairs and PP out the door Coordination of APs:AP quite expensive and AP very beautifulCoordination of Ss:S John loves Mary and S Mary loves John
32、 too.One property of coordination:there is no limit on the number of coordinated categories that can appear prior to the conjunction,e.g.NP A man,a woman,a boy,a cat and a dog got into the car.第48页/共52页Subordination refers to the process or result of linking linguistic units so that they have differ
33、ent syntactic status,one being dependent upon the other,and usually a constituent of the other.Subordination（从属关系）第49页/共52页The subordinate constituents are words which modify the head.Consequently,they can be called modifiers.E.g.(a)two dogs modifier(b)(My brother)can drink(wine).modifier(c)Swimming
34、 in the lake(is fun).modifier(d)(The pepper was)hot beyond endurance.modifier第50页/共52页Subordinate clausesClauses can be used as subordinate constituents.There are three basic types of subordinate clauses:complement clauses,e.g.John believes that the airplane was invented by an Irishman.adjunct(or adverbial)clauses,e.g.Elizabeth opened her presents before John finished his dinner.relative clauses,e.g.The woman that I love is moving to the south.第51页/共52页感谢您的观看！第52页/共52页