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1、 Students will learn: What syntax is; Categories: word level categories; phrase categories and their structures; Phrase structure rule Phrase elements Sentences (The S rule) Transformations Syntax is a branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that gov
2、ern the formation of sentences. A simple version of transformational syntax will be introduced because it is the most popular and best known approach to syntactic analysis and because many of the other approaches that exist today have developed in response to it. Word-level (or lexical) categories C
3、ategory refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as sentence, a noun phrase or a verb. A fundamental fact about words in all human languages is that they can be grouped together into a relatively small number of classes, called s
4、yntactic categories.(句法范畴) Syntactic category can be divided into two groups: Lexical category and phrase categoryLexical category is most central to the study of syntax.Lexical categories are divided into two kinds: major lexical categories and minor lexical categories.Table 4-1 Examples of some le
5、xical categories Major lexical categoriesExamplesNoun (N)Book, boy, love, sheepVerb (V)Run, read, play Adjective (A)Happy, tall, clearPreposition (P)About, over, on Minor lexical categoriesExamplesDeterminer (Det)The, a, this, thoseDegree word (Deg)Quite, very, more, soQualifier (Qual)Often, always,
6、 seldom, almostAuxiliary (Aux)Must, should, can, mightConjunction (Con)And, but, orMeaning: e.g. an entity, a property, an attribute, a state, an action, sensations, etc.Inflection (Words of different categories take different inflections.) inflectional affixes: Noun: -s e.g. books, chairs Verb: -s;
7、 -ed; -ing e.g. sees, hunted, watiching Adj.: -er; -est e.g. taller, fastestDistribution (What type of elements can co-occur with a certain word?)How can we determine a words category?categoryDistributional propertyExamplesnounOccurrence with a determinera car, the bookverbOccurrence with an auxilia
8、ryhas gone, will stayAdj.Occurrence with a degree wordvery rich, too big Phrase categories and their structures Syntactic units that are built around a certain word category are called phrases, the category of which is determined by the word category around which the phrase is built. In English synt
9、actic analysis, the most commonly recognized and discussed phrasal categories are noun phrase (NP), verb phrase (VP), adjective phrase (AP) and prepositional phrase (PP). Whether formed of one or more than one word, they consist of two levels, Phrase level and word level as exemplified below.NPVPAPP
10、P phrase level | |NVAP word levelPhrases that are formed of more than one word usually contain the following elements: head (中心语中心语), specifier (标志语) and complement (补语补语). The word around which a phrase is formed is termed head. The words on the left side of the heads are said to function as specif
11、iers. The words on the right side of the heads are complements.NP the booksVP never eatAP quite certainPP almost inSuch words as determiner the, qualifier never, degree words quite or almost are said to be function as specifiers. The special type of grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangeme
12、nt of elements that make up a phrase is called a phrase structure rule. The phrase structural rule for NP, VP, AP, and PP can be written as follows:NP (Det) N (PP) VP (Qual)V (NP) AP (Deg)A (PP) PP (Deg)P (NP) The arrow can be read as “consist of ” or “branches into”. The parentheses mean that the e
13、lement in them can be omitted and the three dots in each rule indicate that other complement options are available. Examples: a phrase consisting of a specifier, a head, and a complement1. VPQual V NP never drink the water2. phrase consisting of a head and complement PP P NP On the floor 3. phrase c
14、onsisting of a specifier and a head NP Det N the man4. phrase consisting of just a head VP V (The boys) arrived XP rule The XP rule: XP (specifier) X (complement) XPSpecifier X complement headX Theorya. XP (Specifier) Xb. X X (complement)The first rule stipulates that XP categories such as NP and VP
15、 consist of an optional specifier (a determiner, a qualifier, and so forth) and an X. The second rule states that an X consists of a head, X, and any complements. Coordination ruleThe coordination rule can be formulated as below:X X * Con XIn this rule the symbol X stands for “a category at any stru
16、ctural level”, indicating that either an X or an XP can be coordinated. The asterisk (*) indicates that one or more categories can occur to the left of the Con (= conjunction). SpecifierSpecifiers have both special semantic and syntactic roles. Semantically, they help make more precise the meaning o
17、f the head. Syntactically, they typically mark a phrase boundary. Specifiers can be determiners, qualifiers and degree words as well. Complements As we have seen, complements are themselves phrases and provide information about entities and locations whose existence is implied by the meaning of the
18、head. They are attached to the right of the head in English. The XP Rule (revised): XP (Specifier) X (Complement*) This rule also captures the simple but important fact that complements, however many there are, occur to the right of the head in English. Words which introduce the sentence complement
19、are termed complementizers (shortened as Cs). The sentence introduced by the compementizer is called a complement clause. (or complement phrase shortened as CP) and the construction in which the complement phrase is embedded is called matrix clause. ModifiersModifiers specify optionally expressible
20、properties of heads.Table 4-2 Modifier position in English ModifierPositionExampleAPPrecedes the headA very careful girlPPFollows the headOpen with careAdvPPrecedes or follows the headRead carefully; carefully readTo make modifiers fit into phrase structure, we can expand our original XP rule into t
21、he following so that it allows the various options.The Expanded XP rule: XP (Spec) (Mod) X (Complement*) (Mod)This rule allows a modifier to occur either before the head or after it. Where there is a complement, a modifier that occurs after the head will normally occur to the right of the complement
22、 as well.The S rule: S NP VPWhich combines an NP (often called the subject) with a VP to yield a sentence such as the one bellow.SNPVPDetNVaDetNAboyfound theevidenceMany linguists nowadays believe that sentences, like other phrases, also have their own heads. They take an abstract category inflectio
23、n (dubbed “Infl”) as their heads, which indicates the sentences tense and agreement. Infl (= S) Infl NPVPSentence head-Infl position can be taken by an abstract category encoded in a verb which indicates the sentences tense or an auxiliary as shown below. Auxiliary movementThe yes-no question struct
24、ures being considered are built in two steps. In the first step, the usual XP rule is used to form a structure in which the auxiliary occupies its normal position in Infl, between the subject and the VP. The second step in forming a yes-no question requires a transformation, a special type of rule t
25、hat can move an element from one position to another. InversionMove Infl to the left of the subject NP. CPCSNPVPDetNInfl VThetrain will arrive Inversion (revised): Move Infl to C. We assume that all sentences (Ss) occur within a larger complementizer phrase (CP), whether they are embedded or not. By
26、 CP, we mean the bracketed phrase in a sentence like: The student knows CP that the experiment will succeed, in which that is called complementizer C 补语化成分. It is clear that a CP structure is composed of a complementizer and a sentence.According to inversion (revised), a transformation can do no mor
27、e than change an elements position. It does not change the categories of any words and it cannot eliminate any part of the structural configuration created by the phrase structure rules. Thus, will retains its Infl labels even though it is moved into the C position, and the position that is formerly
28、 occupied remains in the tree structure. Marked by the symbol e (for empty) and called a trace (语迹), it records the fact that the moved element comes from the head position within S as shown in the Figure.CPCSNPVPDetNInfl Vthetrain earrive WillInfl Movement of an auxiliary from Infl to C Do insertio
29、n Insert interrogative do into an empty Infl position. CP C S NP Infl VP N V Birds do fly Deep structure and surface structureThere are two levels of syntactic structure. The first, formed by the XP rule in accordance with the heads subcategories, is called deep structure (or D-structure). The secon
30、d, corresponding to the final syntactic form of the sentence which results from appropriate transformations, is called surface structure (or S-structure). The organization of the syntactic component of the grammar can be depicted below. The XP Rule DEEP STRUCTURETransformations SURFACE STRUCTURE （Su
31、bcategorization restricts choice of complements） Wh MovementIn English another kind of questions beginning with a wh-word are called wh question such as the ones below.What language can you speak?What can you talk about?The transformation that moves the wh phrase from its position in deep structure
32、to a position at the beginning of the sentence is called Wh Movement. It can be formulated below. Wh MovementMove the wh phrase to the beginning of the sentence. Wh Movement （revised）Move a wh phrase to the specifier position under CP.Wh Movement can apply not only to wh questions but also to relati
33、ve clauses because relative clause structures are very similar to embedded wh question. CP NP C S NP VPDet N Infl Det N Infl V NP What language can the man e speak e Move and constraints on transformationsThe general rule for all the movement rules is referred to as Move, where “alpha” is a cover te
34、rm for any element that can be moved from one place to another.a) Inversion can move an auxiliary from the Infl to the nearest C position, but not to a more distant C position. CPInfl Geoffrey should knowCP that the train might be late Deep StructureCP should Infl Georfrey _ know CP whether the trai
35、n might be late. Surface structureb) No element may be removed from a coordinate structure. The little girl will tell us a story or a joke.What will the little girl tell us a story or _ ? Syntax Syntactic categories; major lexical categories; and minor lexical categoriesdeterminers; degree words; qu
36、alifiers; Phrase categories and their structureshead, specifier and complement Phrase structure rule: XP rule; X Theory; Coordination rule Phrase elements: Specifiers; complements; modifiers; The S rule Transfomation: auxiliary movement; Do insertion; DEEP STRUCTURE and SURFACE STRUCTURE; WH movemen
37、t; Move and constraints on transformationsThe students will be able to analyze sentences by using the transformation rules. The following phrases include a head, a complement, and a specifier. Draw the appropriate tree structure for each. full of people a story about a sentimental girl often read de
38、tective stories the argument against the proposal move towards the window The following sentences contain modifiers of various types. For each sentence, first identify the modifier(s), then draw the tree structures. A frightened passenger landed the crippled airplane. A huge moon hung in the black s
39、ky. An unusual event occurred before the meeting. A quaint old house appeared on the grassy hill. The following sentences all contain embedded clauses that function as complements of a verb, an adjective, a preposition or a noun. Draw a tree structure for each sentence. You know that I hate war. He
40、said that Tom asked whether the class was over. Gerry cant believe the fact that Anna flunked the English exam. Chris was happy that his father bought him a Rolls-Royce. The children argued over whether bats had wings. Each of the following sentences contains a relative clause. Draw the deep structu
41、re and the surface structure trees for each of these sentences. The essay that he wrote was too long. The dog that he keeps bites. Herbert found the man she loved. The girl whom he often quarrels with majors in linguistics.Syntactic ambiguityI saw the man with the telescope -Give two Chinese translations-Try to draw two trees52Syntactic ambiguityThe girl hit the boy with a stick爸爸給小明买咸蛋超人53Syntactic ambiguity