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1、1Syntaxisthestudyoftherulesgoverningthewaysdifferentconstituentsarecombinedtoformsentencesinalanguage,orthestudyoftheinterrelationshipsbetweenelementsinsentencestructures.句法学研究组词成句的规则，研究句子内部组成成分间的关系。第1页/共101页2Syntacticrelationscanbeanalysedintothreekinds:relationsofpositionrelationsofsubstitutabilit
2、yrelationsofco-occurrence1.Syntacticrelations（句法关系）第2页/共101页31.1RelationsofPosition（位置关系）Forlanguagetofulfillitscommunicativefunction,itmusthaveawaytomarkthegrammaticalrolesofthevariousphrasesthatcanoccurinaclause.Theboykickedtheball NP1NP2SubjectObject第3页/共101页4Positionalrelation,orWORDORDER,refers
3、tothesequentialarrangementofwordsinalanguage.Ifthewordsinasentencefailtooccurinafixedorderrequiredbytheconventionofalanguage,onetendstoproduceanutteranceeitherungrammaticalornonsensicalatall.Forexample,第4页/共101页5Theboykickedtheball*Boytheballkickedthe*TheballkickedtheboyTheteachersawthestudentsThest
4、udentssawtheteacher第5页/共101页6PositionalrelationsareamanifestationofoneaspectofSyntagmaticRelations（横组合关系）observedbyF.deSaussure.TheyarealsocalledHorizontalRelationsorsimplyChainRelations.第6页/共101页7Wordorderisoneofthebasicwaystoclassifylanguagesintheworld:SVO,VSO,SOV,OVS,OSV,andVOS.EnglishbelongstoSV
5、Otype,thoughthisdoesnotmeanthatSVOistheonlypossiblewordorder.第7页/共101页81.2RelationofSubstitutability（替换关系）TheRelationofSubstitutabilityreferstoclassesorsetsofwordssubstitutableforeachothergrammaticallyinsentenceswiththesamestructure.The_smiles.manboygirl第8页/共101页9Italsoreferstogroupsofmorethanonewor
6、dwhichmaybejointlysubstitutablegrammaticallyforasinglewordofaparticularset.strongmanThe tallestboysmiles.prettygirlyesterday.Hewenttherelastweek.thedaybefore.第9页/共101页10ThisisalsocalledAssociativeRelationsbySaussure,andParadigmaticRelations（纵聚合关系）byHjemslev（叶尔姆斯列夫）Tomakeitmoreunderstandable,theyarec
7、alledVerticalRelationsorChoiceRelations.第10页/共101页111.3RelationofCo-occurrence（同现关系/纵横关系）Itmeansthatwordsofdifferentsetsofclausesmaypermit,orrequire,theoccurrenceofawordofanothersetorclasstoformasentenceoraparticularpartofasentence.Forinstance,anominalphrasecanbeprecededbyadeterminerandadjective(s)a
8、ndfollowedbyaverbalphrase.第11页/共101页12Relationsofco-occurrencepartlybelongtosyntagmaticrelations,partlytoparadigmaticrelations.第12页/共101页132.Grammaticalconstructionanditsconstituents2.1GrammaticalConstruction GRAMMATICALCONSTRUCTION（语法结构体）orCONSTRUCTcanbeusedtorefertoanysyntacticconstructwhichisassi
9、gnedoneormoreconventionalfunctionsinalanguage,togetherwithwhateverislinguisticallyconventionalizedaboutitscontributiontothemeaningorusetheconstructcontains.第13页/共101页14lOn the level of syntax,we distinguish for any construction in a language its external and its internal properties.lThe external syn
10、tax of a construction refers to the properties of the construction as a whole,that is to say,anything speakers know about the construction that is relevant to the larger syntactic contexts in which it is welcome.lFor instance,the different terms such as clausal type,phrasal type are assigned to the
11、properties of the constructions respectively.第14页/共101页1515Subject +Verb +Object(clausal type)Mary(subject)ate(verb)an apple(object).Determiner +Noun(phrasal type)this(determiner)edition(noun)n nThe internal syntax of a construction is really a description of the constructions“make-up”,with the term
12、s such as“subject,predicate,object,determiner,noun”.3/26/2023LINGUISTICS第15页/共101页1616Inthecontextofdiscourse/textanalysis,constructionreferstoatokenofaconstructionaltype.ThesentenceThe girl is gigglingisrecognisedas“Subject+Predicate”type,butitisrealizedinastringThe+girl+is+giggling.Itistheconstruc
13、tioninthissensethatcanbeanalysedintoconstituents.3/26/2023LINGUISTICS第16页/共101页172.2ImmediateConstituents(直接成分)Constituent（成分）isapartofalargerlinguisticunit.Severalconstituentstogetherformaconstruction:thegirl(NP)atetheapple(VP)thegirlatetheapple(S)第17页/共101页1818Constituentscanbejoinedtogetherwithot
14、herconstituentstoformlargerunits.Iftwoconstituents,inthecaseoftheexampleabove,B(thegirl)andC(atetheapple),arejoinedtoformahierarchicallyhigherconstituentA(“S”,hereasentence),thenBandCaresaidtobeimmediateconstituentsofA.3/26/2023LINGUISTICS第18页/共101页1919A(Sentence)BCThegirlatetheapple3/26/2023LINGUIS
15、TICS第19页/共101页2020ThistreecontainsthreeNodes.Thetop-mostnode,A,isthemotherofthetwolowernodes,BandC.BandCaredaughtersofthesamemother,andsowerefertothemassisternodes.ThesimpletreeintheaboverepresentsaconstituentofcategoryAwhichiscomposedoftwoparts,oneofcategoryBandtheotherofcategoryC,occurringinthator
16、der.3/26/2023LINGUISTICS第20页/共101页2121TodismantleagrammaticalconstructioninthiswayiscalledIMMEDIATECONSTITUENTANALYSIS orICanalysis(直接成分分析法)，theanalysisofasentenceintermsofitsimmediateconstituents-wordgroups(phrases),whichareinturnanalyzedintotheimmediateconstituentsoftheirown,andtheprocessgoesonunt
17、iltheultimateconstituentsarereached3/26/2023LINGUISTICS第21页/共101页2222Whenatreediagramisusedtorepresenttheconstituentstructureofagrammaticalunit(e.g.aphraseorsentence),syntacticcategoriesareusedtolabelthenodes;themostcommonofthesearelistedinthefollowing:3/26/2023LINGUISTICS第22页/共101页2323Word-levelPhr
18、asalN=nounA=adjectiveV=verbP=prepositionDet=determinerAdv=adverbConj=conjunctionNP=noun phraseAP=adjective phraseVP=verb phrasePP=preposition phraseS=sentence or clause3/26/2023LINGUISTICS第23页/共101页24ImmediateConstituentAnalysis(ICAnalysis)Thegirlatetheapple第24页/共101页2525Treediagram S NP VPDet N V N
19、P Det NThe girl ate the apple3/26/2023LINGUISTICS第25页/共101页2626BracketingIncontrasttotreediagram,BRACKETINGisnotsocommon,butitisaneconomicnotationinrepresentingtheconstituentstructureofagrammaticalunit.(The)(girl)(ate)(the)(apple)Thegirlatetheapple3/26/2023LINGUISTICS第26页/共101页27AdvantagesofICAnalys
20、isTodemonstratetheinternalstructureofasentenceclearlyTorevealtheambiguitiesLeave the book on the shelf.第27页/共101页28LeavethebookontheshelfLeavethebookontheshelf第28页/共101页292.3EndocentricandExocentricConstructions(向心结构和离心结构)The syntactic constructions analysed are of two main types:endocentric and exo
21、centric constructions,depending on their distribution and the relation between their constituents.第29页/共101页3030ENDOCENTRICconstructionisonewhosedistributionisfunctionallyequivalenttothatofoneormoreofitsconstituents,i.e.,awordoragroupofwords,whichservesasadefinableCENTREorHEAD.其整体功能与其某个或某些组成成分（单个词或词
22、组）相同或相似，这个词组是整体的核心或中心。因此向心结构也叫做中心结构。Typicalendocentricconstructionsarenounphrases(the three small children),verbphrases(will have been leaving),adjectivephrases(really very late).3/26/2023LINGUISTICS第30页/共101页31第31页/共101页32Theheadisnotnecessarilythelastconstituent.Itmayoccuratthebeginning.the book o
23、n the shelfthe man about whom Ive been talkingwalked away immediatelyhot beyond enduranceafraid of the talk第32页/共101页33EXOCENTRICconstructionreferstoagroupofsyntacticallyrelatedwordswherenoneofthewordsisfunctionallyequivalenttothegroupasawhole,thatis,thereisnodefinable“Centre”or“Head”insidethegroup,
24、usuallyincludingthebasicsentence,theprepositionalphrase,thepredicate(verb+object)construction,andtheconnective(be+complement)construction.第33页/共101页34Theboysmiled.(Neitherconstituentcansubstituteforthesentencestructureasawhole.)Hehidbehindthedoor.(Neitherconstituentcanfunctionasanadverbial.)Hekicked
25、theball.(Neitherconstituentstandsfortheverb-objectsequence.)Johnseemedangry.(Afterdivision,theconnectiveconstructionnolongerexists.)第34页/共101页35朱德熙在语法答问中指出：布龙姆菲尔德（L.Bloomfield）把句法结构分成两类：至少有一个直接成分跟整体的语法功能相同的结构叫“向心结构”。向心结构里跟整体的功能相同的直接成分是这个向心结构的核心（head）。所有的直接成分都跟整体的语法功能不同的结构叫离心结构。（L.Bloomfield，Language
26、，194-195页）例如偏正结构（包括定语加中心语的名词性偏正结构和状语加中心语的谓词性偏正结构）的语法功能跟它的后一个直接成分（中心语）相同，述宾结构和述补结构的语法功能都跟它的前一个直接成分（述语）相同，所以都是向心结构。主谓结构的语法功能跟它的两个直接成分（主语和谓语）都不一样，所以是离心结构。所有由虚词组成的句法结构如介词结构，“的”字结构等等也都是离心结构。联合结构的语法功能跟它的每一项组成成分都相同，是一种多核心的向心结构，布龙姆菲尔德管它叫并列式向心结构（co-ordinativeendocentricconstruction）。第35页/共101页36布氏向心/离心结构理论的一
27、些问题：1布氏的理论本身并不是完美无缺的。这一点布氏本人已经有所认识。并非所有的向心结构其整体功能都与中心语或核心完全一致，因此“向心/离心”结构理论即使就英语来说也不是一种能够覆盖所有合成短语的分析模式。2可以这样理解向心/离心结构理论：在一个AB结构体中，如果AB的整体功能和其中的某个成分一致，那AB就是向心结构。否则为离心结构。跟整体功能一致的成分就是结构核心。这个理解在汉语中碰到了麻烦，“雷锋精神”成为双核心的向心结构，“这本书的出版”中“出版”变成了结构核心。如果从结构上来考虑，所有的结构都是向心结构。如果从功能上来考虑就有两种情况，一种是结构核心和整体功能一致的结构，另一种是结构核
28、心和整体功能不一致的结构。主谓短语、动宾短语在结构上都是向心的，但是在功能上则不是向心的。至于叫他什么，那就无所谓了。第36页/共101页372.4CoordinationandSubordinationEndocentricconstructionsfallintotwomaintypes,dependingontherelationbetweenconstituents:Coordinationsubordination第37页/共101页38Coordination并列结构CoordinationisacommonsyntacticpatterninEnglishandotherlang
29、uagesformedbygroupingtogethertwoormorecategoriesofthesametypewiththehelpofaconjunctionsuchasand,butandor.Thesetwoormorewordsorphrasesorclauseshaveequivalentsyntacticstatus,eachoftheseparateconstituentscanstandfortheoriginalconstructionfunctionally.第38页/共101页39CoordinationofNPs:NPtheladyorNPthetigerC
30、oordinationofVPs:VPgotothelibraryandVPreadabookCoordinationofPPs:PPdownthestairsandPPoutthedoorCoordinationofAPs:APquiteexpensiveandAPverybeautifulCoordinationofSs:SJohnlovesMaryandSMarylovesJohntoo.第39页/共101页40Inacoordinatesentence,two(ormore)Sconstituentsoccurasdaughtersandco-headsofahigherS.Onepr
31、opertycoordinationrevealsisthatthereisnolimitonthenumberofcoordinatedcategoriesthatcanappearpriortotheconjunction.NP A man,a woman,a boy,a cat and a dog got into the car.Therefore,coordinationoccupiesitsownplaceinthecreativityoflanguage:i.e.recursiveness第40页/共101页41Subordination从属结构Subordinationrefe
32、rstotheprocessorresultoflinkinglinguisticunitssothattheyhavedifferentsyntacticstatus,onebeingdependentupontheother,andusuallyaconstituentoftheother.Thesubordinateconstituentsarewordswhichmodifythehead.Consequently,theycanbecalledmodifiers.第41页/共101页42twodogsHead(Mybrother)candrink(wine).HeadSwimming
33、inthelake(isfun).Head(Thepepperwas)hotbeyondendurance.Head第42页/共101页43SubordinateclausesClausescanbeusedassubordinateconstituents.Therearethreebasictypesofsubordinateclauses:complementclausesadjunct(oradverbial)clausesrelativeclauses第43页/共101页44JohnbelievesthattheairplanewasinventedbyanIrishman.(com
34、plementclause)ElizabethopenedherpresentsbeforeJohnfinishedhisdinner.(adverbialclause)ThewomanthatIloveismovingtothesouth.(relativeclause)第44页/共101页453.SyntacticFunction句法功能Thesyntacticfunctionshowstherelationshipbetweenalinguisticformandotherpartsofthelinguisticpatterninwhichitisused.Namesoffunction
35、sareexpressedintermsofsubjects,objects,predicators,modifiers,complements,etc.第45页/共101页463.1SubjectInsomelanguages,subjectreferstooneofthenounsinthenominativecase.ThetypicalexamplecanbefoundinLatin,wheresubjectisalwaysinnominativecase,suchaspaterandfiliusinthefollowingexamples.paterfiliumamat(thefat
36、herlovestheson)patrumfiliusamat(thesonlovesthefather)第46页/共101页47InEnglish,thesubjectofasentenceisoftensaidtobetheagent,orthedoeroftheaction,whiletheobjectisthepersonorthingacteduponbytheagent.Thisdefinitionseemstoworkforthesesentences:MaryslappedJohn.AdogbitBill.第47页/共101页48butisclearlywronginthefo
37、llowingexamples:Johnwasbittenbyadog.Johnunderwentmajorheartsurgery.Inordertoaccountforthecaseofsubjectinpassivevoice,wehavetwootherterms“grammaticalsubject”(John)and“logicalsubject”(adog).第48页/共101页49Anothertraditionaldefinitionofthesubjectis“whatthesentenceisabout”(i.e.,topic).Again,thisseemstowork
38、formanysentences,suchasBillisaverycraftyfellow.butfailsinothers,suchas(Jackisprettyreliable,but)BillIdonttrust.AsforBill,Iwouldnttakehispromisesveryseriously.第49页/共101页50Allthreesentencesseemtobe“about”Bill;thuswecouldsaythatBillisthetopicofallthreesentences.Theabovesentencesmakeitclearthatthetopici
39、snotalwaysthegrammaticalsubject.Whatcharacteristicsdosubjectshave?WordorderPro-formsAgreementwithverbContentquestionsTagquestions第50页/共101页51Wordorder词序Subjectordinarilyprecedestheverbinthestatement:Sallycollectsstamps.*CollectsSallystamps.第51页/共101页52Pro-formsThefirstandthirdpersonpronounsinEnglish
40、appearinaspecialformwhenthepronounisasubject,whichisnotusedwhenthepronounoccursinotherpositions:Helovesme.Ilovehim.Wethrewstonesatthem.Theythrewstonesatus.第52页/共101页53AgreementwiththeverbInthesimplepresenttense,an-sisaddedtotheverbwhenathirdpersonsubjectissingular,butthenumberandpersonoftheobjectora
41、nyotherelementinthesentencehavenoeffectatallontheformoftheverb:Sheangershim.Theyangerhim.Sheangersthem.第53页/共101页54ContentquestionsIfthesubjectisreplacedbyaquestionword(whoorwhat),therestofthesentenceremainsunchanged,asinJohnstoletheQueenspicturefromtheBritishCouncil.WhostoletheQueenspicturefromtheB
42、ritishcouncil?第54页/共101页55WhatwouldJohnsteal,ifhehadthechance?WhatdidJohnstealfromtheBritishCouncil?WheredidJohnstealtheQueenspicturefrom?nWhen any other element of the sentence is replaced by a question word,an auxiliary verb must appear before the subject.第55页/共101页56TagquestionAtagquestionisusedt
43、oseekconfirmationofastatement.Italwayscontainsapronounwhichrefersbacktothesubject,andnevertoanyotherelementinthesentence.JohnlovesMary,doesnthe?MarylovesJohn,doesntshe?*JohnlovesMary,doesntshe?第56页/共101页573.2PredicatePredicatereferstoamajorconstituentofsentencestructureinabinaryanalysisinwhichallobl
44、igatoryconstituentsotherthanthesubjectwereconsideredtogether.Itusuallyexpressesactions,processes,andstatesthatrefertothesubject.Theboyisrunning.(process)Peterbroketheglass.(action)Janemustbemad!(state)Thewordpredicatorissuggestedforverborverbsincludedinapredicate.第57页/共101页583.3ObjectTraditionally,o
45、bjectmayrefertothe“receiver”or“goal”ofanaction,anditisfurtherclassifiedintoDirectObjectandIndirectObject.Motherboughtadoll.Mothergavemysisteradoll.IODO第58页/共101页59Insomeinflectinglanguages,objectismarkedbycaselabels:theaccusativecase(受格)fordirectobject,andthedativecase(与格)forindirectobject.InEnglish
46、,“object”isrecognizedbytracingitsrelationtowordorder(aftertheverbandpreposition)andbyinflections(ofpronouns).Mothergaveadolltomysister.Johnkickedme.第59页/共101页60Modernlinguistssuggestthatobjectreferstosuchanitemthatitcanbecomesubjectinapassivetransformation.Johnbroketheglass.TheglasswasbrokenbyJohn.P
47、etersawJane.JanewasseenbyPeter.Althoughtherearenominalphrasesinthefollowing,theyarebynomeansobjectsbecausetheycannotbetransformedintopassivevoice.Hediedlastweek.Thematchlastedthreehours.HechangedtrainsatManchester.(*TrainswerechangedbyhimatManchester.)第60页/共101页61613.4TheRelationbetweenClassesandFun
48、ctionsClassesandfunctionsdetermineeachother,butnotinanyone-to-onerelation.Aclassitemcanperformseveralfunctions.Forinstance,anounoranominalphrasecanfunctionasthesubject,object,modifier,adverbialandcomplementofasentence.Afunctioncanalsobefulfilledbyseveralclasses.Forinstance,thesubjectofasentencecanbe
49、realizedbyanoun,pronoun,numeral,infinitive,etc.3/26/2023LINGUISTICS第61页/共101页624.Category范畴Thetermcategoryreferstothedefiningpropertiesofthesegeneralunits:Categoriesofthenoun:number,gender,caseandcountabilityCategoriesoftheverb:tense,aspect,voice第62页/共101页634.1Number数Numberisagrammaticalcategoryused
50、fortheanalysisofwordclassesdisplayingsuchcontrastsassingular,dual,plural,(单数，双数，复数)etc.InEnglish,numberismainlyobservedinnouns,andthereareonlytwoforms:singularandplural,suchasdog:dogs.Numberisalsoreflectedintheinflectionsofpronounsandverbs,suchasHe laughs:They laugh,this man:these men.第63页/共101页64In