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1、专八英语语言学ppt课件 Still waters run deep.流静水深流静水深,人静心深人静心深 Where there is life,there is hope。有生命必有希望。有生命必有希望nI 语言学导论 nII 语言学主要分支学科 nIII 语言学的流派和理论 I 语言学导论语言学导论 1.design feature of language（语言的定义特征）2.Language Families(世界语言分类)3.important distinctions in linguistics(语言学研究中几对重要的概念)4.scope of linguistics (语言学的研
2、究范围)n n1.1.design feature of language（语言的定义特征（语言的定义特征)defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication 1.design feature of language语言定义特征语言定义特征n n1)Arbitrariness（任意性）（任意性）n n2)Duality(二层性二层性)n n3)Creativity/Productivity(创造性创造性)n n4)Displacement（移位性）（移
3、位性）n n5)Cultural Transmission(文化传递性文化传递性)n n1）Arbitrariness(任意性):n n定义：the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning.n n举例：n n书,book,livren n喜欢，like，aimern n2）Duality（二层性）:n n定义：the property of having two levels of structures,such that units of the primary level are com
4、posed of elements of the secondary level.n n举例：举例：Sounds syllables words phrases Sounds syllables words phrases clauses sentences texts/discourses clauses sentences texts/discoursesn n3）Creativity/Productivity（创造性）:n n定义：Language can be used to create new meanings because of its duality n n举例1：/k/,/
5、a:/,/p/-carp or parkn n举例2：England,defeated,Francen nEngland defeated France.n nFrance defeated England.n n4）Displacement（替代性）:n n定义：Human languages enable their users to symbolize something which are not present at the moment of communication.n n5）Cultural Transmission（文化传递性）:n n定义：language is pass
6、ed on from generation to generation through teaching and learning rather than instinct.n n反例：印度狼孩3.Design feature 定义特征定义特征n n1)Arbitrariness（任意性）（任意性）n n2)Duality(二层性二层性)n n3)Creativity/Productivity(创造性创造性)n n4)Displacement（移位性）（移位性）n n5)Cultural Transmission(文化传递性文化传递性)n n 如何记忆如何记忆:五性，创意遗传五性，创意遗传n
7、n4.Important Distinctions in Linguistics n n (语言学研究中几对重要的概念)n n1)descriptive&prescriptive n n2)synchronic&diachronicn n3)langue&parolen n4)competence&performancen n1)Descriptive（描述性）vs.Prescriptive（规定性）n nDescriptive:describing how things are.n nprescriptive:prescribing how things ought to beImporta
8、nt Distinctions in Linguisticsn n举例：n nDont say X.n nPeople dont say X.n nThe first is a prescriptive command,while the second is a descriptive statement.n n2).Synchronic（共时性）vs.Diachronic（历时性）n nsynchronic:takes a fixed instant as its point of observation.n ndiachronic:the study of a language throu
9、gh the course of its history.n n举例：n n研究1800年的英语发音 n nSynchronic studies(共时性研究)n n研究1800-1900的法语语法变化n nDiachronic studies(历时研究)2.世界语言分类世界语言分类Language family 语系language group 语族Language branch 语支印欧语系,汉藏语系，南岛语系，阿尔泰语系，南亚语系印欧语系下的日耳曼语族，罗曼语族，凯尔特语族,斯拉夫语族，伊朗印度语族日耳曼语族下分东日耳曼语支，西日耳曼支，北日耳曼语支2.世界语言分类世界语言分类Langua
10、ge family 语系language group 语族Language branch 语支印欧语系,汉藏语系，南岛语系，阿尔泰语系，南亚语系印欧语系下的日耳曼语族，罗曼语族，凯尔特语族,斯拉夫语族，伊朗印度语族日耳曼语族下分西日耳曼支，东日耳曼语支，北日耳曼语支Indo-European language family印欧语系Germanic group 日耳曼语族West Branch西日耳曼语支英语，德语North Branch瑞典语，丹麦语-Celtic group凯尔特语族North Celtic group北凯尔特语支爱尔兰语，盖尔语South Celtic group南凯尔特语
11、支威尔士语Roman group罗曼语族West Roman Group西罗曼语支法语，西班牙语等东支罗马尼亚语Slavic group斯拉夫语族West Slavic group斯拉夫语西支波兰语，捷克语东支俄语 Important Distinctions in Linguistics n n3).langue（语言）&parole（言语）n nTheorist：Saussure（索绪尔）,father of modern linguistics n nlangue:abstract linguistic systemn nparole:actual realization of lang
12、ueImportant Distinctions in Linguisticsn举例：n汉语系统nlanguen每个中国人在不同具体场景中说出的具体话语nparoleImportant Distinctions in Linguisticsn n4)Competence（语言能力）and performance（语言运用）n ntheorist:Chomsky(乔姆斯基)n ncompetence:users knowledge n nof rules about the linguistic system.n nperformance:the actual n nrealization of
13、 this knowledge in concrete situations.n n5.Scope of Linguistics(语言学的研究范围)n n1）按研究内容来分n n2）按研究导向来分语言学分类语言学分类-按研究内容分按研究内容分LinguisticsMicro-linguistics语言内部问题Macro-linguistics语言与外部世界关系问题语言学分类语言学分类-按研究内容分按研究内容分Micro-LinguisticssoundPhonetics(语音学)Phonology（音系学）wordMorphology（形态学）sentenceSyntax（句法学）meanin
14、gSemantics（语义学）Pragmatics(语用学)Macro-linguisticsLanguage&SocietySociolinguistics社会语言学Language&MindPsycholinguistics心理语言学Language&Cultureanthropological linguistics人类语言学Language&ComputerComputational Linguistics计算机语言学语言学分类语言学分类-按研究导向分按研究导向分Linguistics TheoreticalLinguisticsLinguistic nature,universal
15、rulesApplied Linguisticslanguage acquisition,teaching,assessment语言学分类语言学分类-按研究内容分按研究内容分Micro-LinguisticssoundPhonetics(语音学)Phonology（音系学）wordMorphology（形态学）sentenceSyntax（句法学）meaningSemantics（语义学）Pragmatics(语用学)语言学分类语言学分类-按研究内容分按研究内容分Micro-LinguisticssoundPhonetics(语音学)Phonology（音系学）wordMorphology（形
16、态学）sentenceSyntax（句法学）meaningSemantics（语义学）Pragmatics(语用学)n n考点:n n1.语音学(phonetics)和音系学(phonology)的定义和区别n n2.语音学重要概念:清音和浊音n n3.音系学重要概念:音子，音位,超音段特征 n nPhonetics studies all speech sounds in human languages:how they are produced,transmitted and how they are received.n nPhonology:aims to discover how s
17、peech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.n n区别:meaning(是否研究和表达意义有关的语音）n n举例:n ntoo 和 tea 中的/t/n n发too中的/t/时,舌位更靠近口腔前部n n发tea中的/t/时，舌位更靠近口腔后部n n语音学要研究这种/t/发音的不同之处,音系学不研究n nPhonetics studies how speech sounds are produced,tran
18、smitted,and perceived.语音学分类语音学分类n narticulatory phonetics(发音语音学):speakers production n nacoustic phonetics（声学语音学）:transmissions mediumn nauditory phonetics(听觉语音学):receivers reception n n如何记忆phonetics和phonolgy的区别:n n联想:mathematics,physics,mechanics n n phonetics 语言学，-ics科学性更强 n n n n geology,sociolog
19、y,astrologyn n phonology 音系学，-ology人文性更强 How speech sounds are made Speech organsPosition of the vocal folds(声带声带):voicing(浊音浊音)and voiceless(清音清音)n nVoiceless(清音)：vocal cords are drawn wide apart,letting the air stream go through without causing obstruction n n清音举例：p,s,tn nVoicing/Voiced（浊音）：vocal
20、cords held together,letting the air stream vibrates n n浊音:b,z,dn nThe distinction between vowels and consonants lies in the obstruction of airstream.n nAs there is no obstruction of air in the production of vowels,the description of the consonants and vowels cannot be done along the same lines.n n音系
21、学定义：study of how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.n n音系学重要概念:n nphone音子，n nphoneme音位(音系研究的基本单位)n nsupra-segmental features超音段特征n nPhone(音子)：a phonetic unit;the speech sounds we hear and produce during communication
22、are all phones n n举例:n ntoo 和 tea 中的/t/n n发too中的/t/时,舌位更靠近口腔前部n n发tea中的/t/时，舌位更靠近口腔后部n n所以too 和 tea 中的/t/两个不同的音子 Phoneme(音位):phonological and abstract unit,a unit of distinctive value;the smallest unit of sound in a language which can distinguish two words.举例：tea 和 sea,/t/和/s/是两个不同的音位morphemen nWhat
23、 is the point of departure of phonology?n nA.phone B.sound C.voice D.phoneme n nWhat is the point of departure of phonology?n nA.phone B.sound C.voice D.phoneme(音位)n nWhat is the point of departure of phonetics?n nA.phone B.sound C.voice D.phoneme n nWhat is the point of departure of phonetics?n nA.
24、phone B.sound C.voice D.phoneme Suprasegmental features(超音段超音段特征特征)n nSuprasegmental features:phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments.n nThe principal suprasegmentals are:n nSupra-segmental features(超音段特征)：n nstress（重音）n n举例:perfect(adj)和 perfect(v)n ntone(声调)/pitch(音高):n n定义:so
25、und feature which are caused by the differing rate of vibration of the vocal folds.n n举例:m妈,m麻,m马，m骂n n比较：英语单词，如men nintonation（语调）：pitch,stress,and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation.举例:Morphology 形态学形态学n n1.学科定义n n2.语素的定义和分类n n3.词的分类（classification of words）形态学
26、研究的基本单位形态学研究的基本单位n n1.morpheme(语素）.The most basic element of meaning in language，an element that cannot be further divided into smaller units without altering its meaning.n n举例：n nball n nfootball n nballsMorpheme语素Free morpheme自由语素定义：constitute words by themselves举例：girl,book,dogBound morpheme粘附语素定
27、义:not occur by themselves Derivational morpheme派生语素定义：change lexical meaning举例：Dis-,co-,-ful,-enInflectional morpheme屈折语素定义：change grammatical meaning举例:-s,-ed,-ing,er,est Types of Morphemesn nFree morphemes vs.Bound morphemes（自（自由语素和黏着语素）由语素和黏着语素）:n nFree morphemes:Free morphemes:those that may con
28、stitute those that may constitute words by themselves,eg words by themselves,eg boy,girl,table,nationboy,girl,table,nation.n nBound morphemes:Bound morphemes:those that cannot occur those that cannot occur alone,eg alone,eg-s,-ed,dis-,un-s,-ed,dis-,un-.Types of Bound Morphemen nInflectional morpheme
29、(屈折语素)=inflectional affix(屈折词缀)：change the grammatical meaning(number,aspect,case,tense)n nDerivational morpheme（派生语素）=inflectional affix(派生词缀）:change the lexical meaning ndis+like+s derivational free inflectional morpheme nlight+en+ed free derivational inflectional morpheme n nDerivational morpheme
30、(改变词义):n n改变词义：dis-,un-,multi-,micro-n n改变词性：en-,-full,-mentn nInflectional morpheme（改变语法含义）:n n改变名称的性，数，格：-ess,-s,n n改变动词的时,态，体:-ing,-ed,n n改变形容词的级：-er,-est词的分类词的分类-按构词法分按构词法分wordSimple word简单词Compound word合成词Derivational word派生词n n如何区分派生词（derivational word）和 合成词(compound word):拆开后看各个组成的语素能否都单独成词，如
31、果可以，就是合成词，如果不能就是派生词。n nBusinessman:business+mann nPlayboy:play+boy n nMouthful:mouth+fuln nLighten:light+en词的分类词的分类-按词义分按词义分wordGrammatical word 语法词（function word 功能词）定义：表达语法意义，连接举例：prep介词，conj连词，art冠词，pronoun代词Lexical word词汇词（content word 实义词）定义：表达实际意义（物质，动作和性质）的词举例：n名词，v动词，adj形容词，adv副词词的分类词的分类-按开放
32、性分按开放性分wordOpen class word开放词类定义：不断有新词进入举例：noun,adj,verb,advClosed-class word封闭词类定义：基本没有新词进入举例:preposition,conjunction,article,pronoun词的分类词的分类-按在句子重要性分按在句子重要性分词类Major part of speechNoun名词Verb动词Adjective形容词adverb副词preposition介词Minor part of speechArticle冠词Conjunction连词Auxiliary助动词 分类方法分类方法 按构词法分简单词:d
33、islike,light派生词:dislike,lighten合成词:cat-like,light-weight按词义分语法词:冠,介，代，连词词汇词:名，动，形，副按开放性分开放词:名，动，形，副封闭词:冠,介，代，连词按在句中重要性分主要词类:名，动，形，副,介次要词类：冠，代，连词 Syntax 句法句法n n考点n n1.定义n n2.句法范畴n n3.句子类型n n1.Syntax定义：:studies internal structure of sentence and rules of sentence-formationn nCategory(范畴):a group of li
34、nguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as sentence,a noun phrase or a verb(起相同作用的一类语言单位)n nSyntactical category(句法范畴):a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in sentence-formation.（在句子构成中起相同作用的一类语言单位）Syntactical catego
35、ry(句法范畴句法范畴)n nWord-lexical categoryn nPhrase-phrasal categoryn nClause-clausal categoryn nSentenceLexical Category 词法范畴词法范畴=Parts of Speech 词类词类Lexical categoryMajor part of speechNoun名词Verb动词Adjective形容词adverb副词preposition介词Minor part of speechArticle冠词Conjunction连词Auxiliary助动词 分类方法分类方法 按构词法分简单词:d
36、islike,light派生词:dislike,lighten合成词:cat-like,light-weight按词义分语法词:冠,介，代，连词词汇词:名，动，形，副按开放性分开放词:名，动，形，副封闭词:冠,介，代，连词按在句中重要性分主要词类/范畴:名，动，形，副,介次要词类/范畴：冠，代，连词n n phrasen n specifier head complementn n a car five meters awayn n 72Sentence Types(句子类型句子类型)simple Sentence complexnon-simple compoundn n4.句子分类：n n
37、Simple sentence 简单句n nCoordinate sentence 并列句n nComplex sentence 复杂句n nsimple sentence 简单句n n定义：also called independent clause,contains a subject and a verb,and it expresses a complete thought.n n练习：Jim and Mike play football every afternoon.n n(simple sentence)Mary goes to the library and studies e
38、very day.(coordinate sentence)n ncoordinate sentence并列句:contains two independent clauses joined by a coordinator(并列连词)such as and,or,but etc.Coordinators are often preceded by a comma.n n例句:n n I tried to speak Spanish,and my friend tried to speak English.Lily went to play football,but Maria went sh
39、opping.n nYou have to do it one way or the other.n nSimple sentencen nThe workers were cheerful,or at least they appeared to be cheerful.n nCoordinate sentencen ncomplex sentence n n定义：A complex sentence has an independent clause joined with one or more dependent clauses by one or more subordinators
40、(从属连词)such as if,when,because,althoug.n nAs he is growing old,he seldom goes out.n nHe is growing old,whereas he becomes healthier.n n如何区分并列和复杂句-看连词表示的关系 n n并列，选择和转折关系-并列句n n时间，条件，原因和让步关系-复杂句 Semanticsn n考点：n n1.定义：study of meaningn n2.两种基本意义：reference指称和sense涵义n n3.五种词语语义关系n nLudwig Wittgenstein:Th
41、e meaning of a word is its use in the language.n nMeaning is studied by making detailed analyses of the way words and sentences are used in specific contexts.n nReferenceReference（指称）（指称）（指称）（指称）:how language how language refersrefers to the to the real physical world(real physical world(语言指代外部物质世界语
42、言指代外部物质世界语言指代外部物质世界语言指代外部物质世界)n nSenseSense（涵义）（涵义）（涵义）（涵义）:inherent meaning of the linguistic form.It is abstract and the meaning dictionary compilers are interested in.(语言形语言形式的内在意义式的内在意义)conceptsymbolizes refers tosymbol referent(word)stands for (object)dogSense:a domesticated canine mammal Refer
43、ence:Synonymy 同义同义n nSynonymy 同义:sameness or similarity of meaning.Words that are close in meaning are called synonyms.同义分类举例同义分类举例n ndialectical synonym地域同义词：n n举例:fall and autumn,flat and apartment n nstylistic synonym风格同义词：n n举例:cop and police,kid and offspringn ncollocational synonym搭配同义词：n n举例:
44、accuse of,charge with,rebuke forn nSemantically different synonym语义稍有不同的同义词:n n举例:surprise and astound,blame and rebukeAntonymy 反义反义n nAntonymy 反义:oppositeness of meaning.Words that are opposite in meaning are called antonyms.n nAntonymy 反义关系分类：n ngradable antonymy 等级反义n ncomplementary antonymy互补反义n
45、 nconverse antonymy反向反义Gradable antonymy等级反义等级反义n nyoung-middle-aged-oldn nbig-middle-sized-smalln ngood-average-bad Complementary antonymy互补反互补反义义n nalive:deadn nmale:femalen npresent:absentn ninnocent:guiltyn nodd:evenn npass:failn nboy:girln nhit:miss Converse antonymy反向反义反向反义 n nbuy:selln nlend:
46、borrown ngive:receiven nparent:childn nhusband:wifen nteacher:studentn nabove:belown nbefore:aftern nhost:guestn nemployer:employee Hyponymy 上下义关系上下义关系n nHyponymy上下义上下义:refers to the sense relation between a more general,more inclusive word and a more specific word.n nSuperordinate/hypernym上义词上义词:th
47、e more general termn nHyponym下义词下义词:the more specific termn n举例举例:n nhypernym上义词上义词:animaln n Hyponym下义词下义词:bird,fish,tiger,catn n如何记忆如何记忆:n nhyper-向上向上 hype 炒作炒作n n hypo-向下向下 hypothesis 假设假设 Animalbird fish insect animal human animal tiger lion elephant .Polysemy 一词多义一词多义n nPolysemy:the same one wo
48、rd has more than one meaning.Such a word is called polysemic word.n n举例:n nFish:n n1.鱼n n2.鱼肉n n3.水生动物n n4.捕鱼n n5.寻找n nHomonymy同音/同形异义词:words having different meanings have the same form,different words are identical in sound or spelling,or in both.n nIdentical in sound:homophones 同音词n nIdentical in
49、 spelling:homograph 同形词n nIdentical in both:complete homonyms 同音同形词n nhomophones 同音词：n n举例:knight and night,piece and peace n nhomograph 同形词n n举例:tear(v)and tear(n),lead(v)and lead(n)n ncomplete homonyms 同音同形词:fast(adj)and fast(n)n n如何区分同音同形和一词多义现象:beauty,fish,ball,scalen nbeauty:美丽；美女n nfish:鱼；鱼肉；水
50、生动物；捕鱼；寻找n nball:球；舞会n nscale:规模；鱼鳞 看其多个意义之间是否有关联，如果有就是一词多义，没有就是同音同形词Pragmatics 语用学语用学 n n考点:n n定义和与语义学的区别：study of meaning in context or in usen n言语行为理论（两位理论家和三种行为）n n会话原则 2.Speech Act Theoryn nJohn Austin(1911-1960)n nHow to Do Things with Words(1962)n nMain Idea:things can be done with wordsn nCo