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1、语言学知识点语言学知识点 Mr.PotatonI 语言学导论 nII 语言学主要分支学科 nIII 语言学的流派和理论 I 语言学导论语言学导论 1. design feature of language（语言的定义特征） 2. Language Families (世界语言分类) 3. important distinctions in linguistics (语言学研究中几对重要的概念) 4. scope of linguistics (语言学的研究范围)LOREM IPSUM DOLORn1. design feature of language（语言的定义特征) defining p
2、roperties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication 1. design feature of language语言定义特征语言定义特征n1)Arbitrariness（任意性）n2)Duality(二层性)n3)Creativity/Productivity(创造性)n4)Displacement（移位性）n5)Cultural Transmission(文化传递性) n1）Arbitrariness(任意性): n定义：the forms of linguistic s
3、igns bear no natural relationship to their meaning. n举例：n书, book, livren喜欢，like，aimerLOREM IPSUM DOLORLOREM IPSUM DOLORn2）Duality（二层性）: n定义：the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level.n举例： Sounds syllables word
4、s phrases clauses sentences texts/discoursesLOREM IPSUM DOLORn3） Creativity/Productivity（创造性）: n定义：Language can be used to create new meanings because of its duality n举例1：/k/ ,/a:/, /p/- carp or parkn举例2：England, defeated, FrancenEngland defeated France.nFrance defeated England.n5） Cultural Transmis
5、sion（文化传递性）: n定义：language is passed on from generation to generation through teaching and learning rather than instinct. n反例：印度狼孩LOREM IPSUM DOLOR3. Design feature 定义特征定义特征n1)Arbitrariness（任意性）n2)Duality(二层性)n3)Creativity/Productivity(创造性)n4)Displacement（移位性）n5)Cultural Transmission(文化传递性) n 如何记忆: 五
6、性，创意遗传LOREM IPSUM DOLORn4. Important Distinctions in Linguistics n (语言学研究中几对重要的概念)n1) descriptive & prescriptive n2) synchronic & diachronicn3) langue & parolen4) competence & performanceLOREM IPSUM DOLORn1) Descriptive （描述性） vs. Prescriptive （规定性） nDescriptive: describing how things are.nprescripti
7、ve: prescribing how things ought to beImportant Distinctions in Linguisticsn举例：nDont say X.nPeople dont say X.nThe first is a prescriptive command, while the second is a descriptive statement.LOREM IPSUM DOLORn2). Synchronic（共时性） vs. Diachronic （历时性）nsynchronic: takes a fixed instant as its point of
8、 observation. ndiachronic: the study of a language through the course of its history. LOREM IPSUM DOLORn举例：n研究1800年的英语发音 nSynchronic studies (共时性研究)n研究1800-1900的法语语法变化nDiachronic studies (历时研究)Language family 语系language group 语族Language branch 语支印欧语系,汉藏语系，南岛语系，阿尔泰语系，南亚语系印欧语系下的日耳曼语族，罗曼语族，凯尔特语族, 斯拉夫语族
9、，伊朗印度语族日耳曼语族下分东日耳曼语支，西日耳曼支，北日耳曼语支Language family 语系language group 语族Language branch 语支印欧语系,汉藏语系，南岛语系，阿尔泰语系，南亚语系印欧语系下的日耳曼语族，罗曼语族，凯尔特语族, 斯拉夫语族，伊朗印度语族日耳曼语族下分西日耳曼支，东日耳曼语支，北日耳曼语支Indo-European language family印欧语系Germanic group 日耳曼语族West Branch西日耳曼语支英语，德语North Branch瑞典语，丹麦语-Celtic group凯尔特语族North Celtic gr
10、oup北凯尔特语支爱尔兰语，盖尔语South Celtic group南凯尔特语支威尔士语Roman group罗曼语族West Roman Group西罗曼语支法语，西班牙语等东支罗马尼亚语Slavic group斯拉夫语族West Slavic group斯拉夫语西支波兰语，捷克语东支俄语n3). langue（语言） & parole （言语）nTheorist：Saussure（索绪尔）, father of modern linguistics nlangue: abstract linguistic systemnparole: actual realization of lang
11、ue Important Distinctions in Linguistics Important Distinctions in Linguisticsn举例：n汉语系统nlanguen每个中国人在不同具体场景中说出的具体话语nparoleImportant Distinctions in Linguisticsn4) Competence（语言能力） and performance （语言运用）ntheorist: Chomsky(乔姆斯基) ncompetence: users knowledge nof rules about the linguistic system.nperfo
12、rmance: the actual nrealization of this knowledge in concrete situations.LOREM IPSUM DOLORn5. Scope of Linguistics (语言学的研究范围)n1）按研究内容来分n2）按研究导向来分LinguisticsMicro-linguistics语言内部问题Macro-linguistics语言与外部世界关系问题Micro- LinguisticssoundPhonetics(语音学)Phonology（音系学）wordMorphology（形态学）sentenceSyntax（句法学）mean
13、ingSemantics（语义学）Pragmatics(语用学)Macro-linguisticsLanguage & SocietySociolinguistics社会语言学Language & MindPsycholinguistics心理语言学Language & Cultureanthropological linguistics人类语言学Language & ComputerComputational Linguistics计算机语言学Linguistics TheoreticalLinguisticsLinguistic nature, universal rulesApplied
14、 Linguisticslanguage acquisition, teaching, assessmentMicro- LinguisticssoundPhonetics(语音学)Phonology（音系学）wordMorphology（形态学）sentenceSyntax（句法学）meaningSemantics（语义学）Pragmatics(语用学)Micro- LinguisticssoundPhonetics(语音学)Phonology（音系学）wordMorphology（形态学）sentenceSyntax（句法学）meaningSemantics（语义学）Pragmatics(
15、语用学)LOREM IPSUM DOLORn考点: n1.语音学(phonetics)和音系学(phonology)的定义和区别n2.语音学重要概念: 清音和浊音n3.音系学重要概念: 音子，音位, 超音段特征 LOREM IPSUM DOLORnPhonetics studies all speech sounds in human languages: how they are produced, transmitted and how they are received. nPhonology: aims to discover how speech sounds in a langua
16、ge form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication. n区别: meaning(是否研究和表达意义有关的语音）LOREM IPSUM DOLORn举例:ntoo 和 tea 中的 /t/n发too中的/t/时, 舌位更靠近口腔前部n发tea中的/t/时，舌位更靠近口腔后部n语音学要研究这种/t/发音的不同之处, 音系学不研究语音学分类语音学分类narticulatory phonetics(发音语音学): speakers production nacousti
17、c phonetics（声学语音学）: transmissions mediumnauditory phonetics(听觉语音学): receivers reception Speech organs How speech sounds are madeLOREM IPSUM DOLORnVoiceless(清音)：vocal cords are drawn wide apart, letting the air stream go through without causing obstruction n清音举例：p,s,tnVoicing/Voiced（浊音）：vocal cords h
18、eld together, letting the air stream vibrates n浊音: b,z,dLOREM IPSUM DOLORnThe distinction between vowels and consonants lies in the obstruction of airstream.nAs there is no obstruction of air in the production of vowels, the description of the consonants and vowels cannot be done along the same line
19、s.LOREM IPSUM DOLORn音系学定义：study of how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication. n音系学重要概念: nphone音子，nphoneme音位 (音系研究的基本单位)nsupra-segmental features超音段特征LOREM IPSUM DOLORnPhone(音子)：a phonetic unit; the speech sounds we hear
20、and produce during communication are all phones n举例: ntoo 和 tea 中的 /t/n发too中的/t/时, 舌位更靠近口腔前部n发tea中的/t/时，舌位更靠近口腔后部n所以too 和 tea 中的 /t/两个不同的音子LOREM IPSUM DOLOR Phoneme(音位): phonological and abstract unit, a unit of distinctive value; the smallest unit of sound in a language which can distinguish two wo
21、rds. 举例： tea 和 sea, /t/和/s/是两个不同的音位morphemeLOREM IPSUM DOLORnWhat is the point of departure of phonology?nA. phone B. sound C. voice D. phoneme LOREM IPSUM DOLORnWhat is the point of departure of phonology?nA. phone B. sound C. voice D. phoneme(音位) LOREM IPSUM DOLORnWhat is the point of departure of
22、 phonetics?nA. phone B. sound C. voice D. phoneme LOREM IPSUM DOLORnWhat is the point of departure of phonetics?nA. phone B. sound C. voice D. phoneme LOREM IPSUM DOLORnSupra-segmental features (超音段特征)： nstress （重音）n举例: perfect (adj) 和 perfect (v)ntone (声调)/pitch (音高): n定义: sound feature which are c
23、aused by the differing rate of vibration of the vocal folds.n举例: m妈, m麻, m马， m骂n比较：英语单词，如meLOREM IPSUM DOLORnintonation （语调）：pitch, stress, and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation. 举例: Morphology 形态学形态学n1. 学科定义n2. 语素的定义和分类n3. 词的分类（classification of words）形态学研究的基本单
24、位形态学研究的基本单位n1. morpheme(语素）. The most basic element of meaning in language，an element that cannot be further divided into smaller units without altering its meaning.n举例：nball nfootball nballsMorpheme语素Free morpheme自由语素定义：constitute words by themselves举例：girl, book, dogBound morpheme粘附语素定义: not occur
25、 by themselves Derivational morpheme派生语素定义：change lexical meaning举例：Dis-, co-, -ful, -enInflectional morpheme屈折语素定义：change grammatical meaning举例: -s, -ed, -ing,er, est Types of MorphemesnFree morphemes vs. Bound morphemes（自由语素和黏着语素）: nFree morphemes: those that may constitute words by themselves, eg
26、 boy, girl, table, nation.nBound morphemes: those that cannot occur alone, eg -s, -ed, dis-, un-.Types of Bound MorphemenInflectional morpheme (屈折语素)=inflectional affix(屈折词缀)：change the grammatical meaning (number, aspect, case, tense) nDerivational morpheme（派生语素）=inflectional affix (派生词缀）: change t
27、he lexical meaning LOREM IPSUM DOLORnDerivational morpheme(改变词义): n改变词义：dis-, un-, multi-, micro-n改变词性：en-, -full, -mentnInflectional morpheme（改变语法含义）:n改变名称的性，数，格：-ess, -s,n改变动词的时, 态，体: -ing, -ed, n改变形容词的级：-er, -estwordSimple word简单词Compound word合成词Derivational word派生词LOREM IPSUM DOLORn如何区分派生词（deriv
28、ational word）和 合成词(compound word) : 拆开后看各个组成的语素能否都单独成词，如果可以，就是合成词，如果不能就是派生词。nBusinessman: business + mannPlayboy: play + boy nMouthful: mouth + fulnLighten: light + enwordGrammatical word 语法词 （function word 功能词）定义：表达语法意义，连接举例：prep介词，conj连词，art冠词，pronoun代词Lexical word词汇词 （content word 实义词）定义：表达实际意义（物
29、质，动作和性质）的词举例：n名词，v动词，adj形容词，adv副词wordOpen class word开放词类定义：不断有新词进入举例：noun, adj, verb, advClosed-class word封闭词类定义：基本没有新词进入举例: preposition, conjunction, article, pronoun词类Major part of speechNoun名词Verb动词Adjective形容词adverb副词preposition介词Minor part of speechArticle冠词Conjunction连词Auxiliary助动词 分类方法分类方法 按构
30、词法分简单词: dislike, light派生词: dislike, lighten合成词: cat-like, light-weight按词义分语法词 : 冠, 介，代，连词词汇词: 名，动，形，副按开放性分开放词:名，动，形，副封闭词:冠, 介，代，连词按在句中重要性分主要词类:名，动，形，副, 介次要词类：冠，代，连词n考点n1. 定义n2. 句法范畴n3. 句子类型 Syntax 句法句法LOREM IPSUM DOLORn1. Syntax定义：: studies internal structure of sentence and rules of sentence-format
31、ionLOREM IPSUM DOLORnCategory(范畴): a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as sentence, a noun phrase or a verb (起相同作用的一类语言单位)nSyntactical category(句法范畴): a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in sentence
32、-formation. （在句子构成中起相同作用的一类语言单位）Lexical categoryMajor part of speechNoun名词Verb动词Adjective形容词adverb副词preposition介词Minor part of speechArticle冠词Conjunction连词Auxiliary助动词 分类方法分类方法 按构词法分简单词: dislike, light派生词: dislike, lighten合成词: cat-like, light-weight按词义分语法词 : 冠, 介，代，连词词汇词: 名，动，形，副按开放性分开放词:名，动，形，副封闭词:
33、冠, 介，代，连词按在句中重要性分主要词类/范畴:名，动，形，副, 介次要词类/范畴：冠，代，连词72LOREM IPSUM DOLORn4. 句子分类：nSimple sentence 简单句nCoordinate sentence 并列句nComplex sentence 复杂句LOREM IPSUM DOLORnsimple sentence 简单句n定义：also called independent clause, contains a subject and a verb, and it expresses a complete thought. LOREM IPSUM DOLOR
34、n练习：Jim and Mike play football every afternoon. n(simple sentence) Mary goes to the library and studies every day. (coordinate sentence)LOREM IPSUM DOLORncoordinate sentence并列句: contains two independent clauses joined by a coordinator(并列连词) such as and, or, but etc. Coordinators are often preceded b
35、y a comma. n例句:n I tried to speak Spanish, and my friend tried to speak English. Lily went to play football, but Maria went shopping.LOREM IPSUM DOLORnYou have to do it one way or the other.nSimple sentencenThe workers were cheerful, or at least they appeared to be cheerful.nCoordinate sentenceLOREM
36、 IPSUM DOLORncomplex sentence n定义：A complex sentence has an independent clause joined with one or more dependent clauses by one or more subordinators(从属连词) such as if, when, because, althoug. LOREM IPSUM DOLORnAs he is growing old, he seldom goes out.nHe is growing old, whereas he becomes healthier.
37、n如何区分并列和复杂句-看连词表示的关系 n并列，选择和转折关系-并列句n时间，条件，原因和让步关系-复杂句 Semanticsn考点：n1. 定义：study of meaningn2. 两种基本意义：reference指称和sense涵义n3. 五种词语语义关系inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is abstract and the meaning dictionary compilers are interested in. (语言形式的内在意义语言形式的内在意义) dogSense:a domesticated canine mam
38、mal Reference: Synonymy 同义同义nSynonymy 同义: sameness or similarity of meaning. Words that are close in meaning are called synonyms. 同义分类举例同义分类举例ndialectical synonym地域同义词：n举例: fall and autumn, flat and apartment nstylistic synonym风格同义词：n举例: cop and police, kid and offspringncollocational synonym搭配同义词：n
39、举例: accuse of, charge with, rebuke fornSemantically different synonym语义稍有不同的同义词: n举例: surprise and astound, blame and rebukeAntonymy 反义反义nAntonymy 反义: oppositeness of meaning. Words that are opposite in meaning are called antonyms. nAntonymy 反义关系分类：ngradable antonymy 等级反义ncomplementary antonymy互补反义n
40、converse antonymy反向反义Gradable antonymy等级反义等级反义nyoung -middle-aged- oldnbig -middle-sized- smallngood-average-bad Hyponymy 上下义关系上下义关系nHyponymy上下义: refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word.nSuperordinate/hypernym上义词: the more general termnHypony
41、m下义词: the more specific termLOREM IPSUM DOLORn举例:nhypernym上义词: animaln Hyponym下义词: bird, fish, tiger, catn如何记忆:nhyper-向上 hype 炒作n hypo-向下 hypothesis 假设Polysemy 一词多义一词多义nPolysemy: the same one word has more than one meaning. Such a word is called polysemic word.n举例:nFish:n1. 鱼n2. 鱼肉n3. 水生动物n4. 捕鱼n5.
42、寻找LOREM IPSUM DOLORnHomonymy同音/同形异义词 : words having different meanings have the same form, different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both.nIdentical in sound: homophones 同音词nIdentical in spelling: homograph 同形词nIdentical in both: complete homonyms 同音同形词LOREM IPSUM DOLORnhomophones 同音
43、词：n举例: knight and night, piece and peace nhomograph 同形词n举例: tear (v) and tear (n), lead (v) and lead (n)ncomplete homonyms 同音同形词: fast (adj) and fast (n) LOREM IPSUM DOLORn如何区分同音同形和一词多义现象: beauty, fish, ball, scalenbeauty: 美丽；美女nfish: 鱼；鱼肉；水生动物；捕鱼；寻找nball: 球；舞会nscale: 规模；鱼鳞 看其多个意义之间是否有关联，如果有就是一词多义，没
44、有就是同音同形词Pragmatics 语用学语用学 n考点:n定义和与语义学的区别：study of meaning in context or in usen言语行为理论（两位理论家和三种行为）n会话原则 2. Speech Act TheorynJohn Austin (1911-1960)nHow to Do Things with Words (1962)nMain Idea: things can be done with wordsLOREM IPSUM DOLORnPerformatives（施为句）: utterances which are used to perform a
45、cts, do not describe or report anything at all; the uttering of the sentence is the doing of an action; they cannot be said to be true or false.nPerformative verbs: name, bet, etc.Three Speech Acts (三种言语行为三种言语行为)nA locutionary act (言内行为): the act of uttering words, phrase, sentences. It is an act of
46、 conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon and phonology.n An illocutionary act（言外行为）: an act of expression speakers intention; it is an act performed in saying something.nA perlocutionary act（言后行为）: the act preformed by or as a result of saying, the effects on the hearer.三种话语行为三种话语行为-举例
47、举例n老师对学生说: You have left the door open.nLocutionary act(言内行为): the act of uttering the words of “you”, “have”, “left”, “the”, “door”, “open”nIllocutinary act(言外行为): the act of expressing the teachers intention of asking the student to close the door.nPerlocutionary act(言后行为): the effect of the utter
48、ance: student goes to close the door103 Illocutionary Act Theoryn美国哲学家John Searle (约翰-塞尔， 1932-)n在Austin理论基础上把言外行为进一步分为5类：n陈述（assertives），指示(directives)，承诺(commissives)，表达(expressives)，宣告（declaratives） Conversational Implicature（会话含义理论）nTheorist：英国语言学家Herbert Paul Grice (格莱斯，1913-1988)nMain Idea: Pe
49、ople do not usually say things directly but tend to imply them.The Cooperative Principle (CP，合作原则，合作原则)nMaxim of Quality（数量准则）nMaxim of Quantity（质量准则）nMaxim of Relation（关系准则）nMaxim of Manner（方式准则）The Cooperative Principle (CP，合作原则，合作原则)nMaxim of Quality（数量准则）nDo not say what you believe to be false.
50、nDo not say something if you lack adequate evidence;nMaxim of Quantity（质量准则）nMaxim of Relation（关系准则）nMaxim of Manner（方式准则）LOREM IPSUM DOLORnMaxim of Quality（数量准则）nMaxim of Quantity（质量准则）：nMake your contribution as informative as required (for the current purposes of the exchange).nDo not make your c