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1、严格执行突发事件上报制度、校外活动报批制度等相关规章制度。做到及时发现、制止、汇报并处理各类违纪行为或突发事件。ChapterSixSyntax2022/12/271严格执行突发事件上报制度、校外活动报批制度等相关规章制度。做到及时发现、制止、汇报并处理各类违纪行为或突发事件。-The internal structures of sentences -different treatments of sentence structure by different linguistic schools -IC analysis,deep structure,surface structure,t
2、ree diagram2022/12/272严格执行突发事件上报制度、校外活动报批制度等相关规章制度。做到及时发现、制止、汇报并处理各类违纪行为或突发事件。1.Definition-the study of the rules governing the way words are combined to form sentences in a language,that is,the study of the formation of sentences.2022/12/273严格执行突发事件上报制度、校外活动报批制度等相关规章制度。做到及时发现、制止、汇报并处理各类违纪行为或突发事件。2.
3、Discuss the notion of sentence2.1.The notions of sentencenView1:Agrammaticalunitthatissyntacticallyindependentandhasasubjectthatisexpressedor,asinimperativesentences,understoodandapredicatethatcontainsatleastonefiniteverb.nView 2:An independent group of words expressing a completethought.nView3:Asta
4、tementcontainingasubjectandapredicate,asubjectistheelementaboutwhichastatementismade,andapredicateistheelementmadeaboutasubject.2022/12/274严格执行突发事件上报制度、校外活动报批制度等相关规章制度。做到及时发现、制止、汇报并处理各类违纪行为或突发事件。2.2.The types of sentenceA.Accordingtothestructure:Sentencecanbesimpleandnon-simple(complexandcompound).T
5、hesimplesentenceThegirliswatchingTV.MaryandJohnaresittingonthesofa.ThecompoundsentenceAcompoundsentenceconsistsoftwoormoresimplesentences,usuallyconnectedbyacommaplusajoiningword(and,but,for,or,nor,so,yet).Acompoundsentenceisusedwhenyouwanttogiveequalweighttocloselyrelatedideas.Wearewateringthetrees
6、,forwedonthaveanyrainforamonth.2022/12/275严格执行突发事件上报制度、校外活动报批制度等相关规章制度。做到及时发现、制止、汇报并处理各类违纪行为或突发事件。nThecomplexsentencenAcomplexsentenceismadeupofasimplesentenceandastatementthatbeginswithadependentword.Acomplexsentenceisusedwhenyouwanttoemphasizeoneideaoveranotherinasentence.nWhatIwanttoemphasizeisth
7、is.nWeshouldneverpretendtoknowwhatwedontknow.nThecompound-complexsentencenEllipsisisacommonfeatureinEnglish,butinmanysentencesofthistypeitisnotpossibletostateexactlywhatisleftout.2022/12/276严格执行突发事件上报制度、校外活动报批制度等相关规章制度。做到及时发现、制止、汇报并处理各类违纪行为或突发事件。B.Accordingtocommunicativefunction:Sentence can be dec
8、larative,interrogative,imperativeandexclamatory.2022/12/277严格执行突发事件上报制度、校外活动报批制度等相关规章制度。做到及时发现、制止、汇报并处理各类违纪行为或突发事件。2.3.TheextensionofsentencenSentence can be extended either by conjoining orembedding.nConjoining is a way by which clauses are joined bymeansofcoordinatingconjunctions并列连词(and,but,or),o
9、rconnectives连接词andparataxis.并列(一系列相关的从句或词组之间没有连词)(如:Icame,Isaw,Iconquered.)nEmbedding嵌嵌入入法法isaprocessofconstructionwherebyoneclauseisaconstituentofanotherorissubordinatedtoanother.2022/12/278严格执行突发事件上报制度、校外活动报批制度等相关规章制度。做到及时发现、制止、汇报并处理各类违纪行为或突发事件。2.4.ThestructureofsentenceThelinearandhierarchicalstr
10、ucturesofsentences2022/12/279严格执行突发事件上报制度、校外活动报批制度等相关规章制度。做到及时发现、制止、汇报并处理各类违纪行为或突发事件。nA.ThelinearwordorderofasentenceThewordsofthesentenceiswrittendownorheardoneafteranotherinasequence.2022/12/2710严格执行突发事件上报制度、校外活动报批制度等相关规章制度。做到及时发现、制止、汇报并处理各类违纪行为或突发事件。nB.ThehierarchicalstructureofasentenceSentences
11、arenotonlylinearly-structured.Theyarealsohierarchicallystructured,thatis,sentences are organized by groupingtogether words of the same syntacticcategory such as noun phrase or verbphrase.(NPandVP).2022/12/2711严格执行突发事件上报制度、校外活动报批制度等相关规章制度。做到及时发现、制止、汇报并处理各类违纪行为或突发事件。nThehierarchicalordercanbebestillus
12、tratedwithatreediagramofconstituentstructure,socalledbecause such a diagram looks like an invertedtree.SNP VP Det N V NPThestudentlikesthesubjectoflinguistics.2022/12/2712严格执行突发事件上报制度、校外活动报批制度等相关规章制度。做到及时发现、制止、汇报并处理各类违纪行为或突发事件。3.Traditionalapproach3.1.About the traditional grammar2022/12/2713严格执行突发事
13、件上报制度、校外活动报批制度等相关规章制度。做到及时发现、制止、汇报并处理各类违纪行为或突发事件。nThe traditional approach is also known as traditional grammar.It has a long history.It came from the study of Greek.Since Latin has a close connection to Greek in structure,the study was applied to Latin.2022/12/2714严格执行突发事件上报制度、校外活动报批制度等相关规章制度。做到及时发
14、现、制止、汇报并处理各类违纪行为或突发事件。nScholars in the Middle Ages used to consider Latin as an international language and as a standard model to their own languages,though there were many differences between Latin and other European languages.Therefore,traditional grammar is a model developed originally for Greek,
15、later adapted to Latin,and subsequently applied to other European languages that were quite similar in form to Latin.2022/12/2715严格执行突发事件上报制度、校外活动报批制度等相关规章制度。做到及时发现、制止、汇报并处理各类违纪行为或突发事件。nThe primary purpose of the traditional grammar is the teaching of Latin to those unfamiliar with Latin.The grammar
16、s were not to describe the language but to set up rules as normative 标准准化化的的 and prescriptive 说明性的明性的.nTraditionally,asentenceisseenasasequenceofwords.Thestudyofsentenceformationinvolvesagreatdealofthestudyofthewordssuchasthedistinctionofpartsofspeech,functions and the concord and government ofnumbe
17、r,gender,case,tense,aspectandvoice.2022/12/2716严格执行突发事件上报制度、校外活动报批制度等相关规章制度。做到及时发现、制止、汇报并处理各类违纪行为或突发事件。3.2.Somebasicconceptsna.Categorya.Category:nb.Defining b.Defining properties properties of of these these categoriescategoriesnc.Tense,aspect,voice and moodc.Tense,aspect,voice and moodnd.Concord d
18、.Concord and and government government(Cf.(Cf.118-118-119)119)2022/12/2717严格执行突发事件上报制度、校外活动报批制度等相关规章制度。做到及时发现、制止、汇报并处理各类违纪行为或突发事件。a.CategoryCategoryinsyntaxusuallyreferstoclassesandfunctions,likenoun,verb,subject,predicate,nounphrase,verbphrase,etc.Inthissense,a syntactic category refers to a word,a
19、 phrase or a clause thatperforms a particular grammatical function,such as subject in asentence.AccordingtoLyons(1968:274),therearethreekindsofcategories.“Partsofspeech”isreferredtoasprimarygrammaticalcategoriesandsuchnotionsasnumber,gender,tense,mood,case,person,concord,government,etc.as the second
20、ary grammaticalcategories.The traditional syntactic notions of“subject”,“predicate”,“object”,etc.arereferredtoasfunctionalcategories.In this section,we shall deal especially with the secondarygrammaticalcategories.Someofthemwillbediscussedbelow.2022/12/2718严格执行突发事件上报制度、校外活动报批制度等相关规章制度。做到及时发现、制止、汇报并处
21、理各类违纪行为或突发事件。n Lexical categories:nNoun,Full verb,Adjective,Adverb/Determiner,Preposition,Pronoun,Conjunction,Primary and modal verb,Interjection,NumeralnPhrasal categories:lexical items have certain combinational properties that allow them to combine with words of differentcategoriestoformphrases:n
22、nNP:thethreetallestgirls;nVP:hasbeendoing,walkwithasticknPP:inapark,tothedoor;nAP:quiterude,extremelydifficult;2022/12/2719严格执行突发事件上报制度、校外活动报批制度等相关规章制度。做到及时发现、制止、汇报并处理各类违纪行为或突发事件。nb.Defining properties of category:Number:TheEnglishnumbersystemconstitutesatwo-termcontrast:singularandplural.Numberisag
23、rammaticalcategoryfortheanalysisofsuchcontrastsassingularandpluralofcertainwordclasses.InEnglish,numberisafeatureofnounsandverbs.Forexample,thepluralofbirdisbirds.Numberisalsoseenintheinflectionsofprounsandverbs,suchashesings;theysing,thatwoman;thosewomen.InFrench,numbercanalsobeseeninanumberofwordc
24、lasses:nouns,adjectives,articles,etc.2022/12/2720严格执行突发事件上报制度、校外活动报批制度等相关规章制度。做到及时发现、制止、汇报并处理各类违纪行为或突发事件。nGender:nGenderdemonstratessuchcontrastsasmasculine:feminine:neuter,animate:inanimate,etc.fortheanalysisofcertainwordclasses.Incertainlanguages,grammaticalgenderhaslittletodowiththebiologicalsex.
25、Forinstance,inFrench,the moon,which has nothing to do with the biological sex,isgrammaticallyfeminine,andinGerman,agirlisgrammaticalneuter.Englishgendercontrastismostlyofthenaturalgenderkind,andisusuallyreflectedinpronounsandasmallnumberofnouns.Forexample,heformasculine,sheforfeminine,anditforneuter
26、.Case:Thecasecategoryisoftenusedintheanalysisofwordclassestoidentifythesyntacticrelationshipbetweenwordsinasentence.Itisafeatureofthenoun,largelyfunctionallydefinable(nominative主格formentioningthesubject,vocative呼格forexclaimingorcalling,accusative宾格formentioningtheobject,genitive属格 for ownership,dati
27、ve与格 for indicating benefit,ablative离格fordirectionoragency).In English,the genitive case can be marked by inflection or a prepositionalphrase.Forexample,boys,apictureofthegirl.2022/12/2721严格执行突发事件上报制度、校外活动报批制度等相关规章制度。做到及时发现、制止、汇报并处理各类违纪行为或突发事件。nc.Tense,aspect,voice and mood Tense is any one of the i
28、nflected forms in the conjugation of a verb that indicates the time,such as past,present,whereas aspect is the forms to indicate the continuance or completion of the action or state.2022/12/2722严格执行突发事件上报制度、校外活动报批制度等相关规章制度。做到及时发现、制止、汇报并处理各类违纪行为或突发事件。Voiceisagrammaticalcategoryofverbsorasetofverbinfl
29、ectionswhichmakesitpossibletoviewtheactionofasentenceineitheroftwoways:activeandpassive.2022/12/2723严格执行突发事件上报制度、校外活动报批制度等相关规章制度。做到及时发现、制止、汇报并处理各类违纪行为或突发事件。Moodisasetofverbformsorinflectionsusedtoindicatethespeakersattitudetowardthefactualityorlikelihoodoftheactionorconditionexpressed.2022/12/2724严格
30、执行突发事件上报制度、校外活动报批制度等相关规章制度。做到及时发现、制止、汇报并处理各类违纪行为或突发事件。d.d.Concord and governmentConcord and government（一致关系和支配关系）（一致关系和支配关系）Concord:the requirement that the forms of two or more Concord:the requirement that the forms of two or more words in a syntactic relationship should agree with words in a synta
31、ctic relationship should agree with each other in terms of some categories,such as each other in terms of some categories,such as subject-predicate agreement.subject-predicate agreement.指两个或更多处于一定指两个或更多处于一定语法关系中的词，要在某些范畴上互相保持一致的语法关系中的词，要在某些范畴上互相保持一致的形式。形式。EgEg.This man these men.This man these men a
32、 book some books a book some books The subject and verb forms:The subject and verb forms:EgEg.He speaks English.They speak English.He speaks English.They speak English.2022/12/2725严格执行突发事件上报制度、校外活动报批制度等相关规章制度。做到及时发现、制止、汇报并处理各类违纪行为或突发事件。nGovernment(支配):Arelationshipinwhichawordofcertainclass determin
33、esthe form of others in terms ofcertaincategory.是指某个句法构造中某些词的形式被其他词控制的另一种类型）eg.Shegavehimabook.thegovernorthegoverned2022/12/2726严格执行突发事件上报制度、校外活动报批制度等相关规章制度。做到及时发现、制止、汇报并处理各类违纪行为或突发事件。Shegaveabooktohim.governorgoverned2022/12/2727严格执行突发事件上报制度、校外活动报批制度等相关规章制度。做到及时发现、制止、汇报并处理各类违纪行为或突发事件。InLatinlangua
34、ge,weseeVidetbovem（Heseestheox）Nocetbovi（Heharmstheox）Meminitbovis（herememberstheox）Theobjectwordinthesentenceisthesame,butitappearsindifferentcaseformsasaresultofthedifferentverbsusedbeforeit.2022/12/2728严格执行突发事件上报制度、校外活动报批制度等相关规章制度。做到及时发现、制止、汇报并处理各类违纪行为或突发事件。4.The structural approachn（结构主义学派）Start
35、edbytheSwisslinguistFerdinanddeSaussurein the beginning of the twentieth century.Linguisticunitsareregardedasinterrelatedwitheachotherinastructureorsystem,notasisolatedbits.（语言单位是在一种结构或系统中相互关联的，不是孤立的。2022/12/2729严格执行突发事件上报制度、校外活动报批制度等相关规章制度。做到及时发现、制止、汇报并处理各类违纪行为或突发事件。4.1.Syntagmatic and paradigmatic
36、 relations（组合关系与聚合关系）（组合关系与聚合关系）Syntagmatic relation refers to the sequentialarrangement of words in language.It isalsocalledpositionalrelation,wordorder,horizontal relation,chain relation.指一个单位和同一个序列中的其他单位之间的关系，或者说是在现场的所有成分之间的关系。e.g.If the weather is nice,well go out.2022/12/2730严格执行突发事件上报制度、校外活动报批
37、制度等相关规章制度。做到及时发现、制止、汇报并处理各类违纪行为或突发事件。nSyntagmatic relation must meet syntactic and semantic conditionseg.（1）（a）Jackeatsanapple.（b）eatsJackapplean.（c）anappleeatsJack.（d）eatJackanapple.(e)Theboychasedthedog.(f)Thedogchasedtheboy.2022/12/2731严格执行突发事件上报制度、校外活动报批制度等相关规章制度。做到及时发现、制止、汇报并处理各类违纪行为或突发事件。nPara
38、digmaticrelationreferstoclassesorsetsofwordssubstitutableforeachothersyntacticallyinthesamesentencestructure.指在结构的某个特殊位置上彼此可以相互替换的成分之间的关系，或者说是在现场的成分与不在现场的成分之间的关系。Itisalsocalledtherelationofsubstitutability,associativerelation,verticalrelationorchoicerelation.2022/12/2732严格执行突发事件上报制度、校外活动报批制度等相关规章制度。
39、做到及时发现、制止、汇报并处理各类违纪行为或突发事件。（a）The_issmiling.Constraints:-ananimatenoun（book,desk）-asemanticcomponentofhuman（trees,cats）-inthesingular（boys,men）2022/12/2733严格执行突发事件上报制度、校外活动报批制度等相关规章制度。做到及时发现、制止、汇报并处理各类违纪行为或突发事件。Hespeaksfast.fluently.eloquently.asfastashecan.Thesequencewhichasignformswiththoseitisina
40、syntagmaticrelationissometimescalledaSTRUCTURE,tousethewordinamorerestrictedsense;andtheclassofsignswhichareinaparadigmaticrelationaresometimescalledaSYSTEM,with“system”alsousedinarestrictedsense.由一个符号和那些跟它处于组合关系中的符号形成的序列有时叫做更严格意义上的结构；处于聚合关系中的符号的类别叫做更严格意义上的系统。这两种关系，就像坐标的两根轴，一起决定了语言符号的身份。也就是说，一个语言符号的
41、价值是由能与它结合构成一个序列的其他符号、与它形成对照又能替换它在这一序列中的位置的其他符号决定的。2022/12/2734严格执行突发事件上报制度、校外活动报批制度等相关规章制度。做到及时发现、制止、汇报并处理各类违纪行为或突发事件。nAconstructionisanorderedarrangementofgrammaticalunitsformingalargerunit-how a word,a phrase,a clause or asentence is constructed out of a set ofmorphemesbyfollowingasetofrules.2022/
42、12/2735严格执行突发事件上报制度、校外活动报批制度等相关规章制度。做到及时发现、制止、汇报并处理各类违纪行为或突发事件。nA constituent is one grammatical unit(awordoramorpheme)thatenterssyntactically or morphologically into aconstructionatanylevel.2022/12/2736严格执行突发事件上报制度、校外活动报批制度等相关规章制度。做到及时发现、制止、汇报并处理各类违纪行为或突发事件。nAnimmediateconstituentisanyoneofthelarge
43、stgrammaticalunitsthatconstituteaconstructiondirectly.Immediateconstituentsareoftenfurtherreducible.nICanalysisemphasizesthefunctionoftheintermediate level-word group,seeing ahierarchical structure of the sentence aswell.2022/12/2737严格执行突发事件上报制度、校外活动报批制度等相关规章制度。做到及时发现、制止、汇报并处理各类违纪行为或突发事件。4.2.Immedia
44、te constituent analysis（IC analysis）theanalysisofasentenceintermsofitsimmediateconstituentswordgroups（orphrases）,whichareinturnanalyzedintotheimmediateconstituentsoftheirown,andtheprocessgoesonuntiltheultimateconstituentsarereached.先把句子分析为直接成分-词组（或短语）再把这些直接成分依次切分，得到各自的直接成分，层层切分，直到最终成份为止。2022/12/2738
45、严格执行突发事件上报制度、校外活动报批制度等相关规章制度。做到及时发现、制止、汇报并处理各类违纪行为或突发事件。a.Withbrackets:（Poor）（John）（ran）（away）2022/12/2739严格执行突发事件上报制度、校外活动报批制度等相关规章制度。做到及时发现、制止、汇报并处理各类违纪行为或突发事件。b.atreediagramPoorJohnranaway2022/12/2740严格执行突发事件上报制度、校外活动报批制度等相关规章制度。做到及时发现、制止、汇报并处理各类违纪行为或突发事件。TheadvantagesofICanalysisnThroughICanalys
46、is,theinternalstructureofasentencemaybedemonstratedclearly,andambiguities,ifany,willberevealed.Forexample,nLeavethebookontheshelf.2022/12/2741严格执行突发事件上报制度、校外活动报批制度等相关规章制度。做到及时发现、制止、汇报并处理各类违纪行为或突发事件。Leavethebookontheshelf.nLeaveitthere.Leavethebookontheshelf.nDonttouchit.nLeavethebookontheshelf.2022/
47、12/2742严格执行突发事件上报制度、校外活动报批制度等相关规章制度。做到及时发现、制止、汇报并处理各类违纪行为或突发事件。mysmallchildscotnmysmallchildscotnmysmallchildscotnmysmallchildscot2022/12/2743严格执行突发事件上报制度、校外活动报批制度等相关规章制度。做到及时发现、制止、汇报并处理各类违纪行为或突发事件。ProblemsofICanalysisnAtthebeginning,someadvocatorsinsistedonbinarydivisions.Anyconstruction,atanylevel
48、,willbecutintotwoparts.Oldmenandwomenold+menandwomenmen+and+womanoldmen+andwomanoldmen+and+womannConstructionswithdiscontinuousconstituentswillposetechnicalproblemsfortreediagramsinICanalysis.2022/12/2744严格执行突发事件上报制度、校外活动报批制度等相关规章制度。做到及时发现、制止、汇报并处理各类违纪行为或突发事件。4.3.Endocentricandexocentricconstruction
49、snEndocentric construction（向心结构）（向心结构）isaconstructionwhosedistributionisfunctionallyequivalentorapproachingequivalencetooneofitsconstituents.Theconstituentwhichcanstandforthewholeconstructioniscalledthecenterorhead.Theconstituentwhichcannotstandforthewholeiscalledthemodifier.Therefore,anendocentricc
50、onstructionisalsocalledaheadedconstruction.向心结构的分布和它的一个成分的分布相同或相近，这个成分是整体的核心和中心。因此向心结构也叫做中心结构2022/12/2745严格执行突发事件上报制度、校外活动报批制度等相关规章制度。做到及时发现、制止、汇报并处理各类违纪行为或突发事件。Eg.girlinacleanwhitedress,bridgedamagedbeyondrepair,walkedalongthestreet,hotbeyondendurance2022/12/2746严格执行突发事件上报制度、校外活动报批制度等相关规章制度。做到及时发现、