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1、1.Invitations to Linguistics1.What is language?2.What are the design features of language?3.What is arbitrariness?4.What is duality?5.What is creativity?6.What is displacement?第1页/共80页7.The origin of language.8.What functions does language have?9.What is Linguistics?10.What are the main branches of
2、linguistics?11.Important distinctions in Liguistics.1、Descriptive&Prescriptive(描写与规定)2、Synchronic L&Diachronic L(共时L与历时L)3、Langue&Parole(语 言 与 言 语)4、Competence&Performance(语言能力与语言应用)第2页/共80页Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.Language is a system.Language is
3、arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic(内 在 的)connection between a linguistic symbol and what the symbol stands for.“A rose by any other name would smell as sweet.”Romeo and Julier第3页/共80页“Design features”here refer to the defining properties of human language that tell the difference betw
4、een human language and any system of animal communication.They are arbitrariness,duality,creativity,displacement,cultural transmission.第4页/共80页2.Speech Sounds1.What is phonetics?2.What are the three main branches of phonetics?3.Classification of English Consonants.4.Classification of Vowels.5.What i
5、s phonology?6.Whats the difference between phonetics and phonology?7.What is a phone?What is a phoneme?What is an allophone?第5页/共80页What is phonetics?The science studies the characteristics of human sound-making,especially those sounds used in speech,and provides methods for their description,classi
6、fication and transcription.第6页/共80页 1Articulatory Phonetics 发音语音学Phonetics 2Acoustic Phonetics 声学语音学 3Auditory Phonetics 听觉语音学第7页/共80页1.Articulatory Phonetics:the study of the production of speech sounds.第8页/共80页2.Acoustic Phonetics:is the study of physical properties of the sounds produced in speec
7、h.第9页/共80页3.Auditory Phonetics:is concerned with the perception of speech sounds.第10页/共80页Stop(Plosive)塞音(爆破音)b p t d k gNasal 鼻音 m n Fricative 擦音 f v s z Approximant 中通音 j r wLateral 边通音 lTrill 颤音 r Tap and Flap 触音 Affricate 塞擦音 t d 第11页/共80页Bilabial 双唇音 p b mLabiodental 唇齿音 f vDental 齿音 Alveolar 齿
8、龈音 t d n r s z lPostalveolar 后齿龈音 d tRetroflex 卷舌音 rPalatal 腭音 jVelar 软腭音 k g Uvular 小舌音 rPharyngeal 咽音Glottal 声门音第12页/共80页第13页/共80页“Phonology”is the study of sound systemsthe invention of distinctive speech sounds that occur in a language and the patterns.音位学研究的是一种语言的整个语音系统及其分布或布局状况,包括某一特定语言里的语音或音位
9、分布和结合的规则或规律。第14页/共80页1.Phonetics studies how speech sounds are made,transmitted and received.2.Phonology is the study of the sound systems of languages.第15页/共80页1)Phone(音素):a phonetic unit,the smallest part of phonetics.p t k heg.tip;pit;spit 语音属于言语2)Phoneme(音位):phonological unit 是音位学单位,音位属于语言。/ph p
10、=/3)Allophone(音 位 变 体):The different phones representing a phoneme are allophones./pit/;/tip/;/spit/第16页/共80页3.From Morpheme to Phrase1.What is morphology?2.What is a morpheme?What is an allomorph?3.What is a free morpheme?What is a bound morpheme?4.What is a root?What is a stem?What is an affix?5.W
11、hat are open classes?What are closed classes?6.What is word?第17页/共80页“Morphology”is the branch of grammar that studies the internal structure of words,and the rules by which words are formed.“Morpheme”is the smallest unit in terms of relationship between expression and content,a unit which cannot be
12、 divided.An allomorph refers to a member of a set of morphs,which represent one morpheme.第18页/共80页Free Morphemes:independent of other plete meaning;used as free grammatical units in sentencesman,earth,wind,car,angerBound Morphemes:cannot occur as separate words recollection re/collect/ion第19页/共80页Ro
13、ot(词根):is the basic form of a word which cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity.Stem(词干):may consist of a single root morpheme or plus one or more affixational morphemes.Affixes(词缀):are forms that are attached to words or word elements to modify meaning or function.第20页/共80页 Close
14、d class words (封闭类词)Open-class words (开放类词)1)Closed words:their membership is fixed or limited.E.g.pro.prep.conj.art.etc.2)Open-class words:whose membership is in principle infinite or unlimited.e.g.n.v.adj.adv.E.g.regarding/with regard to;throughout,in spite of第21页/共80页Word:is a minimal free form o
15、f a language that has a given sound and meaning.第22页/共80页4.From Word to Text1.What is syntax?2.What is category?What is syntactic category?3.What is IC analysis?4.What are endocentric and exocentric constructions?5.What is concord?第23页/共80页1.What is Syntax?Syn:“together”Tax:“to arrange”Syntax:It stu
16、dies the rules governing the way words are combined to form sentences in a language.In short:It studies the formation of sentences.第24页/共80页2.CategoryCategory refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence,a noun phrase o
17、r a verb.Syntactic category:能在句子中起相同作用的词构成相同的句法范畴。句法范畴不同于词类,两个属于不同词类的词可能属于同一句法范畴。第25页/共80页3.What is Immediate Constituent(IC)Analysis?The relation between a sentence and its component elements is a Construction(结构体)and its Constituents(成分).To analyze their relations is IC.To show how small constitue
18、nts in sentences go together to form large constituents.第26页/共80页With Bloomfields IC Analysis:The boy kicked the ball The boy kicked the ball第27页/共80页 S NP VP Det N V NP Det N The boy kicked the ballWith Chomskys Tree Diagram analysis 第28页/共80页4.Endocentric and Exocentric constructions:向心结构和离心结构 P78
19、 Endocentric Construction:is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent to that of one or more of its constituents.A word or a group of words serves as a definable“center.”某一成分决定了整体短语的性质two pretty girls第29页/共80页Exocentric Construction:opposite of endocentric construction,refers to a group of
20、syntactically related words where none of the words is functionally equivalent to the group as a whole;there is no definable centre or head inside the group.整体短语中的成分无法决定整体短语的性质。It includes basic sentence,PP,(V+O)construction,and connective construction(be+complement).第30页/共80页Concord:also known as A
21、greement,the form of two or more words in a syntactic relationship should agree with each other in terms of some categories.There is a book on the shelf.There are some books on the shelf.We are studying English.He studies English.第31页/共80页5.Meaning1.What is semantics?2.What is referential theory?3.W
22、hat is ideational theory?4.What is the Semantic Triangle?5.How many kinds of meaning did Leech find and study?6.What is sense relation?7.What is entailment?What is presupposition?8.What is componential analysis?第32页/共80页Semantics:is generally considered to be the study of meaning in language.The the
23、ory of meaning which relates the meaning of a word to the thing it refers to,or stands for,is known as the referential theory.第33页/共80页Frege 为弥补指称论之不足,提出了观念论,认为语言符号和符号所指对象之间不存在直接的指称关系,它是经过涵义(Sense)这一过渡层面使得语言与所指对象发生联系的,意义不仅仅在于与所指对象之间的关系,也包括词语本身的涵义。Ideational Theory 观念论第34页/共80页Ogden&Richards(1923):Se
24、mantic Triangle(Triangle of Significance)P36 Concept(Sense)概念(涵义)-word(symbol)thing(referent)符号形式 指称对象第35页/共80页G.Leech recognizes 7 types of meaning in his Semantics.1.Conceptual meaning 概念意义2.Connotative meaning 内涵意义3.Social meaning 社会意义4.Affective meaning 感情意义5.Reflected meaning 反射意义6.Collocative
25、meaning 搭配意义7.Thematic meaning 主题意义第36页/共80页Sense relation:A word which is related to other words in sense within a language system itself.词与词之间不同的涵义关系第37页/共80页 Polysemy Homonymy Sense Relation Synonymy Antonymy Hyponymy第38页/共80页1.Polysemy(一词多义):is the common feature peculiar to all natural language
26、s.第39页/共80页2.Homonymy:The words different in meaning but either identical both in sound and spelling or identical only in sound or spelling.第40页/共80页 Perfect homonym Homonymy Homographs Homophones 第41页/共80页3.Synonymy(同义关系):words different in sound and spelling but nearly alike or exactly the same in
27、 meaning.第42页/共80页4.Antonymy(反义关系):as words which are opposite in meaning.Complementaries Types of antonyms Contraries Converses第43页/共80页V.Hyponymy (上下义关系):deals with the relationship of semantic inclusion.The meaning of a more specific word is included in that of another more general word.第44页/共80页
28、Entailment 蕴涵关系:Entailment is an important sense relation or logical relation between sentences.a.John killed Bill.b.Bill died.a.I saw a boy.b.I saw a child.(3)a.John is a bachelor.b.John is an unmarried.第45页/共80页Presupposition 预设下句为上句的预设。甲:当今法国国王是个秃子。乙:当今法国有位国王。第46页/共80页Componential Analysis(语义成分分析
29、):by breaking down the sense of a word into its minimal components,digging them out and classifying them,and showing their relationships is termed componential analysis.第47页/共80页father,mother,son,daughter包含了一种两实体间关系的词 HUMAN MALE ADULTMan +Woman +Boy +Girl +第48页/共80页6.Language and Cognition1.What is
30、Cognition?2.What are the main basic elements of cognition?3.What is the core principle of Cognitive Linguistics?4.What is iconicity?5.What is prototype theory?6.What is image schema?7.What is metaphor?What is metonymy?8.What is salience?第49页/共80页What is Cognition?Cognition:“认识”和“认知”英汉词典“认识”指客观事体及其规律
31、在人脑中的反映。感+理辞海(1989,1999):认知就是认识,指人类认识客观事物、获得知识的活动,包括知觉、记忆、学习、言语、思维和问题解决等过程。现代汉语词典(第5版):通过思维活动认识、了解。第50页/共80页认知最基本的两个要素:动觉图式和基本范畴:通过人的身体与客观外界互动而产生的,可被直接理解,其他概念和范畴则主要是通过隐喻认知机制而被简洁认知的。第51页/共80页认知语言学的核心原则语言也是一种认知活动,是对客观世界进行互动体验和认知加工的结果。现实 认知 语言第52页/共80页象似性语言符号象似于人们的认知方式,且在其作用下一定程度地象似于现实世界,语符形式在音、形或结构上与其
32、所表达的意义之间存在映照相似的现象。该描写不仅反映了象似性具有普遍性,存在于语言的不同层面,而且还为象似性理论提供了一条可应用的系统研究线索。音义象似 形义象似 距离象似性 数量象似性 顺序象似性第53页/共80页句法象似性句法象似性距离象似性距离象似性John Haiman(1983)象似动因与经济动因一文中对距离相似性(the iconicity of distance)描述为:The linguistic between expressions corresponds to the conceptual distance between them.(词句中语符之间的距离象似于它们所表示的
33、概念距离。)第54页/共80页give sb.sth.与 give sth.to sb.的距离象似性give you a book give a book to youhelp sb.(to)do 结构与距离象似性He helped me finish the meal.He helped me to finish the meal.This medicine will help you to sleep.第55页/共80页apple,treeapple treeapple trees语,文语文语和文第56页/共80页顺序象似性顺序象似性语言单位排列顺序象似于时间顺序和语言单位排列顺序象似于时
34、间顺序和文化观念文化观念Jacobson(1965):The order of clauses corresponds in general to the order of events,as in“I came,I saw,I conquered.”(一般来一般来说,分句的顺序象似于事件的顺序,说,分句的顺序象似于事件的顺序,例如:例如:“我来,我看,我征服我来,我看,我征服”。)第57页/共80页58英语的语序与汉语的语序常常是不对应的,这是由于英语的语序与实际生活中的时间顺序常是不对应的。例:他 从 成都 坐 火 车 经 遂宁 到 重庆。He came to Chongqing from
35、 Chengdu through Suining by train.第58页/共80页 原型范畴(范畴,即划分类别。男人/女人,好/一般/差)第59页/共80页 意象图式 认知语言学的核心原则为“现实 认知语言”,这是一个十分笼统的概括,其中的“认知”包括很多细微过程,我们可将其详述为:现 实 互动体验 意象图式 范畴 概念 意义 语 言 从上图可见,意象图式是在互动体验的基础上形成的,它又是形成范畴、概念和意义的基础。因此意象图式在认知语言学中具有举足轻重的地位。第60页/共80页 语言的突显观第61页/共80页 语言的突显观认为,语言结构中信息的选择与安排是由信息的突出程度决定的。如:Th
36、e car crashed into the tree.The tree was hit by the car.第62页/共80页 台上坐着主席团。主席团坐在台上。笑声充满晚会。晚会充满笑声。The picture is above the blackboard.The picture is above the blackboard.The blackboard is below the picture.The blackboard is below the picture.第63页/共80页7.Language in Use1.What is pragmatics?2.What is the
37、 relation between pragmatics and semantics?3.What is the difference between sentence meaning and utterance meaning?4.What is the speech act theory?5.What is performative and constative?6.What is a locution,an illocution and a perlocution?7.What is the cooperative principle?第64页/共80页什么是语用学语用学,即研究语言使用
38、的学科。语用学,即研究语言使用的学科。语语用用学学,研研究究在在不不同同语语境境中中话话语语意意义义的的恰恰当当地地表表达达和和准准确确地地理理解解,寻寻找找并并确确立立使使话话语语意意义义得得以以恰恰当当地地表表达达和和准准确确地地理理解解的基本原则和准则。的基本原则和准则。语语用用学学,研研究究话话语语在在使使用用中中的的语语境境意意义义,或或话话语语在在特特定定语语境境条条件件下下的的交交际际意意义义,特特别别研研究究在在不不同同的的语语言言交交际际环环境境下下如如何何准准确地理解语言和恰当地运用语言。确地理解语言和恰当地运用语言。第65页/共80页语义学与语用学的联系和区别:语义学与语
39、用学的联系和区别:二二者者都都是是对对意意义义的的研研究究,但但它它们们是是在在两两个个不不同同的的层层面面上上对对意意义义进进行行的的研研究究:语语义义学学是是对对抽抽象象语语言言能能力力的的研研究究,语语用用学学是是对对言言语语行行为为(即即通通过过言言语语实实施施的的行行为为,是是说说话话人人跟跟听听话话人人对对抽抽象象的的语语言言能能力力的的运运用用)的的研研究究。二二者者之之间间的的差差别别大大体体上上就就是是意意义义和和用用法法之之间间的的差差别别。然然而而不不应应该该忘忘记记言言语语行行为为是是语语言言能能力力的的具体体现。具体体现。因因此此我我们们赞赞成成利利奇奇采采用用的的观
40、观点点:“语语义义学学和和语语用用学学是是互互不不相相同同但但又又互互相相补充的研究领域。补充的研究领域。”第66页/共80页句子与话语句子与话语 句句子子:是是一一个个句句法法学学、语语义义学学的的概概念念,是是脱脱离离语语境境条条件件的的抽抽象象的的单单位位,多多用用于于指指抽抽象象的的语语法法结结构构或或脱脱离离语语境境条条件件的的结结构构组组合合,也也就就是是说说,它它是是按按照照一一定定的的语语法法规规则则组组合合起起来来的的、具具有有意意义义的的语语言言单单位位,其其意意义义就就是是词词汇汇意意义义和和语语法法意意义义的的组组合合,在在任任何何条件下它的意义都是恒定的。条件下它的意
41、义都是恒定的。话话语语:是是一一个个语语用用学学概概念念,话话语语就就是是特特定定语语境境条条件件中中所所使使用用的的句句子子、词词或或词词语,体现的是特定的语境意义。语,体现的是特定的语境意义。第67页/共80页 言语行为理论言语行为理论 是是英英国国约约翰翰兰兰素素奥奥斯斯汀汀19551955年年提提出出的的。他他认认为为:为为了了传传递递信信息息,人人们们需需要要使使用用话话语语,但但话话语语并并非非都都是是为为了了传传递递字字面面意意义义或或表表达达话话语语本本身身的的语语义义信信息息,在在很很多多时时候候说说话话人人都都是是在在“通通过过言言辞辞行行事事”(doing doing t
42、hings things with with wordswords)。比比如如,实实施施许许诺诺、发发出出警警告告或或威威胁胁、表表示请求、表达命令、进行批评等。示请求、表达命令、进行批评等。在在一一定定的的语语境境条条件件下下通通过过话话语语实实施施的的行行为为,被被称称为为“言言语语行行为为”(speech speech actsacts),是是说话人跟听话人对抽象的语言能力的运用。说话人跟听话人对抽象的语言能力的运用。第68页/共80页I name this ship the Queen Elizabeth.I bequeath my match to my brother.I bet
43、you six pences it will rain tomorrow.I promise to finish it in time.I apologize.I declare the meeting open.I warn you that the bull will charge.第69页/共80页Locutionary act(发话行为)普通意义我们说话的时候,要移动发音器官,发出按照一定方式组织起来,并被赋予了一定意义的声音。在这个意义上,当有人说“Morning!”时,我们可以问:“他做了什么?”,而不问“他说了什么?”。答案可以是他发出了一个声音,单词或者句子“Morning”。
44、第70页/共80页Illocutionary act(行事行为)我们说话时,不只是说出一些具有一定意义的语言单位,而且说明我们的说话目的,我们希望怎样被理解,也就是Austin说的具有一定的语力(force)。我们可以说“Morning!”有问候的语力,或者说,它应该被理解成问候。语力,或者叫行事语力(illocutionary force),像但与说话者意义、语境意义或附加意义,可以译成汉语的“言外之意”。第71页/共80页Perlocutionary act(取效行为)说话可以看成做事的第三种意义,涉及话语对听话人产生的效果。通过告诉听话人某事,说话人可以改变听话人对某件事的观点,或者误导
45、他,让他惊奇,诱导他做某事,等等。不管这些效果是否符合说话人的本意,它们都可以看作说话人行为的一部分。第72页/共80页 会话含义理论会话含义理论是是美美国国哲哲学学家家格格赖赖斯斯19671967年年在在哈哈佛佛大大学的威廉学的威廉詹姆斯讲座上提出来的。詹姆斯讲座上提出来的。格格赖赖斯斯在在讲讲座座中中区区分分了了话话语语的的自自然然意意义义和和非非自自然然意意义义。自自然然意意义义指指话话语语本本身身表表达达的的客客观观事事实实,而而非非自自然然意意义义指指说说话话人人要要表表达达的的意意图图,即即主主观观的的非非实实际际的的信信息息。指指出出说说话话人人在在说说一一句句话话的的同同时时还
46、还流流露露出出的的别别的的隐隐含含意意思思。也也就就是是说说在在言言语语交交流流中说出中说出X X,命题意义为,命题意义为P P,然而却隐含,然而却隐含Q Q。第73页/共80页 会会话话含含义义,就就是是话话语语在会话中产生的隐含意义。在会话中产生的隐含意义。会会话话含含义义理理论论,是是力力图图解解释释人人们们如如何何获获得得言言外外之之意意,也也就就是是如如何何收收获获一一句句话的隐含意义的一种理论。话的隐含意义的一种理论。第74页/共80页 例如:例如:丈丈夫夫对对妻妻子子说说:“到到做做饭饭的的时时间间了。了。”妻子回答妻子回答“我很累。我很累。”丈丈夫夫的的言言外外之之意意,可可能
47、能是是我我饿饿了了,或或者者是是提提醒醒妻妻子子应应该该去去做做饭饭;妻妻子子的的言言外外之之意意可可能能是是出出门门到到外外面面去吃,或者是饭得由你来做。去吃,或者是饭得由你来做。第75页/共80页男孩对女孩说:“你不带眼镜的时候很漂亮。”女孩:“我戴眼镜的时候一定很丑了。”男孩有理由否认他这样说了,但是他不能否认自己多少暗示了这一点。Grice试图弄明白,人们是怎样传达没有明确说出来的涵义的。第76页/共80页 格格赖赖斯斯的的合合作作原原则则是是会话含义理论的基础。会话含义理论的基础。“合合作作原原则则”的的内内容容是是:说说人人们们在在会会话话过过程程中中头头脑脑里里会会尽尽量量保保持
48、持某某些些标标准准,从从而而在在遵遵循循这这些些标标准准的基础上使交流顺利进行。的基础上使交流顺利进行。第77页/共80页 “合合作作”的的概概念念是是:会会话话参参与与者者尽尽管管是是分分别别提提供供自自己己的的话话语语,但但总总是是在在一一定定程程度度上上意意识识到到其其中中的的某某一一些些目目的的,至至少少是是一一个个互互相相都都能能接接受受的的话话语语发发展展方方向向;这这一一些些目目的的或或方方向向的的达达成成可可以以说说是是在在会会话话过过程程中中共共同同维维护护和和坚坚持持当当前前的的目目的的和和方方向向形形成成的的默默契契,也也可可以以说说是是是是会会话话参参与与者者在在交交流流过过程程中中共共同同合合作作努努力力地地结结果。果。第78页/共80页格格赖赖斯斯把把合合作作原原则则具具体体分分析析成成数数量量、质质量、关系、方式四条准则:量、关系、方式四条准则:数数量量准准则则,指指的的是是信信息息量量要要恰恰如如其其分分,不多不少。不多不少。质质量量准准则则,指指的的是是说说话话要要真真实实,要要有有根根据。据。关系准则关系准则,指的是话语之间要有关联。,指的是话语之间要有关联。方方式式准准则则,指指的的是是说说话话要要清清楚楚,有有条条理理,不要有歧义,不要罗嗦。不要有歧义,不要罗嗦。第79页/共80页感谢您的观看!第80页/共80页