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1、FoundationsAll structures designed to be supported by the earth,includingbuindings，bridges,earth fills，earth and rock and concrete dams,consistof two parts。These are the superstructure，or upper part，and thesubstructure element which interfaces the superstructure and supportingground。In the case of e
2、arth fills and dams,there is often not a clear lineof demarcation between the superstructure and substructure。Thefoundation can be defined as the substructure and that adjacentzone ofsoil and rock which will be affected by both the substructure element andits loads.The foundation engineer is that pe
3、rson who by reason of experienceand training can be produce solutions for design problems involving thispart of the engineered system.In this context，foundation engineering canbe defined as the science and art of applying the principles of soil andstructural mechanics together with engineering judge
4、ment to solve theinterfacing problem。The foundation engineer is concerned directly withthe structural members which affect the transfer of load from thesuperstructure to the soil such that the resulting soil stability andestimated deformations are tolerable。Since the design geometry andlocation of t
5、he substructure element often have an effect on how the soilresponds,the foundation engineer must be reasonably versed in structuraldesign.Foundations for structures such as buildings，from the smallestresidential to the tallest high-rise，and bridges are for the purpose oftransmitting the superstruct
6、ure load.These loads come from column-typemembers with stress intensities rangeing from perhaps 140MPa for steelto 10MPa for concrete to the supporting capacity of the soil，whichisseldom over 500kPa but more often on the order of 200 to 250kPa.Almost any reasonable structure can be built and safely
7、supported ifthere is unlimited financing.Unfortunately,in the real situation this isseldom，if ever,the case,and the foundation engineer has the dilemmaof making a decision under much less than the ideal condition，Also，even though the mistake may be buried,the resultsfrom the error arenot and can sho
8、w up relatively soon-and probably before any statute oflimitations expires。These are reported cases where the foundationdefects have shown up either during construction of superstructure orimmediately thereafter.Since the superstructure is buried,or is beneath the superstructure，insuch a configurati
9、on that access will be difficult，should foundationinadequacies develop after the superstructure is in place;it is commonpractice to be conservative。A one or two percent over design,in theseareas produces a larger potential investment return than in thesuperstructure。The designer is always faced with
10、 the question of what constitutes asafe,economical design while simultaneously contending with theinevitable natural soil heterogeneity at a site。Nowadays that problemmay be compounded by land scarcity requiring reclamation of areaswhich have been used as sanitary landfills,garbage dumps，or evenhaza
11、rdous waste disposal areas。Still another complicating factor is thatthe act of construction can alter the soil properties considerably fromthose used in the initial analyse of the foundation.These factors result infoundation design becoming so subjective and difficult to quantify thattwo design firm
12、s might come up with completely different designs whichwould perform equally satisfactory。Cost would likely be thedistinguishable feature for the preferred design。This problem and the widely differing solutions would depend，forexample，on the folling.1）What constitutes satisfactory and tolerable sett
13、lement;how muchextra could,or should，be spent to reduce estimated settlements fromsay 30 to 15mm?2）Has the client been willing to authorize an adequate soilexploration program？what kind of soil variability did the soil boringsindicate?Would additional borings actually improve the foundationrecommend
14、ations?3）Can the buildings be supported by the soil using？4)What are the consequences of a foundation failure in term of publicsafety？What is the likelihood of a lawsuit if the foundation does notperform adequately?5）Is sufficient money available for the foundation？It is not unheardof that the found
15、ation alone would cost so much that the project is noteconomically feasible。It may be necessary to abandon the site in favorof one where foundation costs are affordable?6）What is the ability of the local construction force?It is hardlysensible to design an elaborate foundation if no one can built it
16、，or if it isso different in design that the contractor includes a large”uncertaintyfactor in the bid。7）What is the engineering ability of the foundation engineer？Whilethis factor is listed last，this is not of least importance in economicaldesign。Obviously engineers have different levels of capabilit
17、y just as inother professions and in the trades such as carpenters，electricians，andpainters.If the foundation fails because of any cost shaving,the client tends tobe quickly lose appreciation for the temporary financial benefit whichaccrued.At this point，facing heavy damages and a lawsuit,the client
18、 isprobably in the poorest mental state of all the involved parties.Thus,oneshould always bear in mind that absolute dollar economics may notproduce good foundation engineering.The foundation engineer must look at the entire system，the buildingpurpose，probable servicelife loading,type of framing，soi
19、l profile,construction methods,and construction costs to arrive at a design that isconsistent with the client needs and does not excessively degrade theenvironment。This must be done with a safety factor which produces atolerable risk to both the public and the owner。Considering these several areas o
20、f uncertainty,it follows that risk andliability insurance for persons engaged in foundation engineering is verycostly。In attempts to reduce these costs as well as produces a design，which could be obtained from several engineering firms there is activediscussion of having the foundation engineer subm
21、it the proposed designto a broad of qualified engineers for a”peer review”.中文翻译：地基基础所有由土基础的结构，包括建筑物，桥梁，土堤，土石坝和混凝土坝，都由两部分组成，它们是上部结构或者上面的部分和下部结构单元，下部结构介于上部结构和支撑地层之间。对于土堤和坝来说,往往是没有明确的划分界限。基础可以定义为下部结构，并且临近的土和坝收到下部结构单元和它的负荷的影响。基础工程师是,一个忧郁有经验和长期训练的原因，可以提供关于这部分的工程系统的设计问题的解决方案的人。在这种情况下，基础工程可以被定义为应用土和结构力学结合工
22、程判断的原则，共同解决类似问题的科学和艺术.由于设计的的几何形状和下部结构单元位置往往对土壤有效果，所以基础工程师在结构设计中必须合理精通的.那些建筑物结构的基础,从最小的住宅，到最高的高层,和桥梁都是以传递上层建筑负荷为目的.这些荷载来自构件柱形与构件的应力强度，也许从 140MPa 的钢到 10MPa 的混凝土。土壤的支撑能力很少超过 500kPa,但更多的时候在 200250kPa 之间。如果工程造价没有限制的话，几乎任何合理的结构,都可以建立和安全支撑.但不幸的是，在实际情况中，几乎是不可能的,如果有这种情况的话也是极少见的，基础工程师也比理想的条件下更难以作出决定，另外，即使错误可以
23、掩埋，结果也不可以掩埋，可能相当快，或许在一切限制性的条例到期之前，就会显现出来。这些被报道的案例中基础缺陷显现或许在上部结构工程建造期间出现或者紧随其后的出现.由于上部结构被掩埋,或者上部结构的下方,在这样的配置下，通道将是困难的，或许基础缺陷，出现在上部结构之后是合理的地方，它是常见的做法是保守的。如果将设计值超过的一个或两个百分点在这些地方，可以比上层建筑产生更大的潜在投资回报。设计师总是面临着怎样构成一个安全,经济的设计，同时关于不可避免的自然土壤不均匀性的问题的争论在网站上上演。如今，这一问题可能会由于土地的稀缺而加剧了，在这种情况下要求土地的填海工程已采用卫生填埋场,垃圾场，甚至是
24、危险废物处置领域的地区。还有一个复杂因素是,建设的行为可以从基础的初始设计中改变土壤的属性.这些因素导致基础设计变得如此主观的，难以量化，完全不同的两个设计公司可能提出完全不同的设计方案，但结果执行同样令人满意。成本将会是首选设计的区别特征.这个问题将取决于以下各种不同的解决方案，例如：1）什么是满意和容许的解决方案；多少额外的,或者应该花费多少,来使定位点从 30mm 减少到 15mm？2）客户是否愿意授权充足的土壤勘探计划？什么样的土壤变异显示的土壤钻孔?额外钻孔会实际改善基础的优点吗？3）建筑物可以只使用土壤做基础支撑吗？4）对于公工安全的建筑物基础失效的后果是什么?如果基础不能充分使用
25、的诉讼的可能性是什么？5）如果用足够的钱做基础有效吗？单独的基础将花费这么多，在经济上是不可行的项目不是闻所未闻。考虑到一个基础成本是否负担得起有必要放弃这个方案吗？6）当地的建筑结构应力的能力是什么？如果没有人能建造它，精心制作一个设计合理的基础是很难,或者如果它是如此不同的设计，承包商包括在投标中有一个“不确定性”的因素。7）基础工程师的工程能力是什么？虽然这个因素列在最后,但在经济性的设计中这不是最重要的。显然，工程师们就像在其他专业和行业,如木工，电工，画家中也有不同的能力水平。如果因为任何费用减少而使基础失效的话，代理商往往将由于暂时的累计经济利益减少而很快对方案失去了欣赏。在这一点上，面临巨额赔偿和诉讼，代理商可能是在所有参与有关各方中精神状态最贫穷的。因此,应始终牢记,过分的追求经济效益不一定会产生良好的基础工程。基础工程师，必须着眼于整个系统建设，包括永久荷载,框架结构类型，土壤剖面的施工方法和施工费用满足客户需求设计,并且不会过分降低环境.必须做到这一点，这样会产生一个对于公众和雇主可以承受的风险与安全系数.考虑到上述几个方面的不确定性,因此,风险和责任保险，对于从事基础工程的人是非常昂贵的。在尝试减少这些费用，以及制作设计方案时，可以凭借几个工程公司获得的是“同行评议的基础工程师提交的建议设计方案定位成一个合格的工程师的建议已经引起广泛积极的讨论。