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1、寒假来临，不少的高中毕业生和大学在校生都选择去打工。准备过一个充实而有意义的寒假。但是，目前社会上寒假招工的陷阱很多ContentslChapter1LanguageandLinguisticslChapter2SpeechSounds:phoneticsandPhonologylChapter3WordsandMorphologylChapter4Sentences:SyntaxlChapter5Meaning:SemanticslChapter6Meaninginuse:PragmaticslChapter7Language,CultureandThoughtlChapter8Langua
2、geAcquisitionandLearninglChapter9Schoolsoflinguistics寒假来临，不少的高中毕业生和大学在校生都选择去打工。准备过一个充实而有意义的寒假。但是，目前社会上寒假招工的陷阱很多Chapter1LanguageandLinguisticsl1.1LanguageandHumanl1.2Designfeaturesoflanguagel1.3FunctionsofLanguagel1.4Linguisticsanditsbranchesl1.5BasicConceptsinlinguistics寒假来临，不少的高中毕业生和大学在校生都选择去打工。准备过
3、一个充实而有意义的寒假。但是，目前社会上寒假招工的陷阱很多1.1DefinitionoflanguagelIntheTextbooklLanguageisameansofverbalcommunication.Itisinstrumentalinthatcommunicatingbyspeakingorwritingisapurposefulact.Itissocialandconventionalinthatlanguageisasocialsemioticandcommunicationcanonlytakeplaceeffectivelyifalltheusersshareabroadu
4、nderstandingofhumaninteractionincludingsuchassociatedfactorsasnonverbalcures,motivation,andsocialculturalroleslLanguage:Languageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.寒假来临，不少的高中毕业生和大学在校生都选择去打工。准备过一个充实而有意义的寒假。但是，目前社会上寒假招工的陷阱很多1.2DesignfeaturesoflanguagelDesignfeatures:Designfeature
5、srefertothedefiningpropertiesofhumanlanguagethatdistinguishitfromanyanimalsystemofcommunication.lArbitrariness/lProductivity/lDuality/lDisplacement/lCulturaltransmission寒假来临，不少的高中毕业生和大学在校生都选择去打工。准备过一个充实而有意义的寒假。但是，目前社会上寒假招工的陷阱很多ArbitrarinesslArbitrarinessreferstothepropertyoflanguagewhichrevealsthatt
6、hereisnodirectnaturallinkbetweenthelinguisticformanditsmeaning.lHowever,languageisnotentirelyarbitrary.Therearewordswhicharecreatedintheimitationofsounds.lButthenonarbitrarywordsarequitelimitedinnumber.lThearbitrarynatureoflanguagemakesitpossibleforlanguagetohaveanunlimitedsourceofexpressions.寒假来临，不
7、少的高中毕业生和大学在校生都选择去打工。准备过一个充实而有意义的寒假。但是，目前社会上寒假招工的陷阱很多Doyouthinkhumanlanguageisentirelyarbitrary?Why?lLanguageisarbitraryinnature,itisnotentirelyarbitrary,becausetherearealimitednumberofwordswhoseconnectionsbetweenformsandmeaningscanbelogicallyexplainedtoacertainextent,forexample,theonomatopoeia,words
8、whicharecoinedonthebasisofimitationofsoundsbysoundssuchasbang,crash,etc.Takecompoundsforanotherexample.Thetwoelements“photo”and“copy”in“photocopy”arenonmotivated,butthecompoundisnotarbitrary.寒假来临，不少的高中毕业生和大学在校生都选择去打工。准备过一个充实而有意义的寒假。但是，目前社会上寒假招工的陷阱很多ProductivitylProductivityreferstothepropertyoflangu
9、agewhichenableslanguagetogeneratenewutterancesbyitsusers.lThepropertyoflanguageenablesustoexpressourunlimitedandnewideas.lProductivityisuniquetohumanlanguage.Mostanimalcommunicationsystemsappeartobehighlyrestrictedwithrespecttothenumberofdifferentsignalsthattheiruserscansendandreceive.寒假来临，不少的高中毕业生和
10、大学在校生都选择去打工。准备过一个充实而有意义的寒假。但是，目前社会上寒假招工的陷阱很多DualitylDualityisthenatureoflanguagewhichshowsthatlanguageisasystemandconsistsoftwosetsofstructure,ortwolevels,oneofsoundsandtheotherofmeanings.lAtthelowerorthebasiclevel,thereisthestructureofsounds,whicharemeaningless,discrete,individualsounds.Butthesound
11、soflanguagecanbecombinedaccordingtorulesintounitsofmeaningsuchasmorphemesandwords,which,atthehigherlevel,canbearrangedintosentences.lThisdualityofstructureordoublearticulationoflanguageenablesitsuserstotalkaboutanythingwithintheirknowledge.lNoanimalcommunicationsystemhasdualityorevencomesneartoposse
12、ssingit.寒假来临，不少的高中毕业生和大学在校生都选择去打工。准备过一个充实而有意义的寒假。但是，目前社会上寒假招工的陷阱很多DisplacementlDisplacementmeansthatlanguagecanbeusedtorefertothingswhicharepresentornotpresent,realorimaginedmattersinthepast,present,orfuture,orinfarawayplaces.lInotherwords,languagecanbeusedtorefertocontextsremovedfromtheimmediatesit
13、uationsofthespeakerlAnimalcallsaremainlyutteredinresponsetoimmediatechangesofsituation.寒假来临，不少的高中毕业生和大学在校生都选择去打工。准备过一个充实而有意义的寒假。但是，目前社会上寒假招工的陷阱很多CulturaltransmissionlCulturaltransmissionisthepropertyoflanguagewhichrequiresushumantolearnalanguage.lHumanbeingswerebornwiththeabilitytoacquirelanguage.lT
14、hedetailsofanylanguagearenotgeneticallytransmittedorpasseddownbyinstinct.Theyhavetobetaughtandlearned,butanimalcallsystemsaregeneticallytransmitted.寒假来临，不少的高中毕业生和大学在校生都选择去打工。准备过一个充实而有意义的寒假。但是，目前社会上寒假招工的陷阱很多DiscretenesslDiscretenessisthepropertyoflanguagewhichenablesthespeakersofalanguagetoidentifyth
15、esoundelementsinitswords.lEachsoundisdiscreteanddistinctandthuscanbecombinedtogethertomakedifferentforms.lItisthestructuralfeatureoflanguagethatwordsaremadeupofelementalsounds寒假来临，不少的高中毕业生和大学在校生都选择去打工。准备过一个充实而有意义的寒假。但是，目前社会上寒假招工的陷阱很多1.3FunctionsoflanguagelMalinowski:pragmaticfunction;magicalfunction
16、;phaticfunctionlJakobson:referential,poetic,emotive,conative,phatic,metaligualfunctionlHalliday:metafunctions:ideationalfunction;interpersonalfunction;textualfunction寒假来临，不少的高中毕业生和大学在校生都选择去打工。准备过一个充实而有意义的寒假。但是，目前社会上寒假招工的陷阱很多1.4LinguisticsanditsbrancheslBasicbranchesoflinguisticsPhonetics:speechsound
17、slPhonology:rulesinspeechsoundslMorphology:wordsandtheirformationlSyntax:rulesofsentenceslSemantics:meaningGrammarPhonologyMorphologySyntaxSemantics寒假来临，不少的高中毕业生和大学在校生都选择去打工。准备过一个充实而有意义的寒假。但是，目前社会上寒假招工的陷阱很多OtherbranchesoflinguisticslPragmaticslAnthropologicallinguisticslPsycholinguisticslSociolingui
18、sticslNeurolinguisticslAppliedlinguisticslComputationallinguistics寒假来临，不少的高中毕业生和大学在校生都选择去打工。准备过一个充实而有意义的寒假。但是，目前社会上寒假招工的陷阱很多1.5SomeconceptsinLinguisticslDescriptivevsprescriptivelSynchronicvsdiachroniclSpeechandwritinglLangueandparolelCompetenceandperformance寒假来临，不少的高中毕业生和大学在校生都选择去打工。准备过一个充实而有意义的寒假。
19、但是，目前社会上寒假招工的陷阱很多1)PrescriptiveandDescriptivelPrescriptivismprescribesrulesofwhatiscorrect.ItcreatesrulesofgrammarlDescriptivismdescribethewaypeopleactuallyspeakandwritetheirlanguage,nottoprescribehowtheyoughttospeakorwrite.寒假来临，不少的高中毕业生和大学在校生都选择去打工。准备过一个充实而有意义的寒假。但是，目前社会上寒假招工的陷阱很多Howismodernlinguis
20、ticsdifferentfromtraditionalgrammar?lTraditionalgrammarisprescriptive;itisbasedonhigh(religious,literary)writtenlanguage.Itsetsgrammaticalrulesandimposestherulesonlanguageusers.ButModernlinguisticsisdescriptive;Itcollectsauthentic,andmainlyspokenlanguagedataandthenitstudiesanddescribesthedatainanobj
21、ectiveandscientificway.寒假来临，不少的高中毕业生和大学在校生都选择去打工。准备过一个充实而有意义的寒假。但是，目前社会上寒假招工的陷阱很多2)SynchronicandDiachroniclThediachronicstudyreferstothedescriptionofthehistoricaldevelopmentofalanguagelThesynchronicstudyreferstothedescriptionofaparticularstateofalanguageatasinglepointoftime.lSynchronicdescriptionhas
22、priorityoverdiachronicdescription.寒假来临，不少的高中毕业生和大学在校生都选择去打工。准备过一个充实而有意义的寒假。但是，目前社会上寒假招工的陷阱很多Howdoyouunderstandthedistinctionbetweenasynchronicstudyandadiachronicstudy?lThedescriptionofalanguageatsomepointintimeisaSynchronicstudy;thedescriptionofalanguageasitchangesthroughtimeisadiachronicstudy.Async
23、hronicstudyoflanguagedescribesalanguageasitisatsomeparticularpointintime,whileadiachronicstudyoflanguageisthestudyofthehistoricaldevelopmentoflanguageoveraperiodoftime.寒假来临，不少的高中毕业生和大学在校生都选择去打工。准备过一个充实而有意义的寒假。但是，目前社会上寒假招工的陷阱很多3)LangueandParoleLangueParoleTheabstractsystemAcollectivebodyofknowledgeAc
24、quiredbyallmembersofacommunityofspeakersTheparticularactualitiesofindividualutterancesThecontingentexecutivesideofthingsTherelativesuperficialbehavioralreflexesofknowledgeTheuseoflanguageinutterance寒假来临，不少的高中毕业生和大学在校生都选择去打工。准备过一个充实而有意义的寒假。但是，目前社会上寒假招工的陷阱很多Whatarethemajordistinctionsbetweenlangueandp
25、arole?lThedistinctionbetweenlangue,andparolewasmadebythefamousSwisslinguistFerdinanddeSaussureearlythiscentury.lLanguereferstotheabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallthemembersofaspeechcommunity,andparolereferstotherealizationoflangueinactualuse.lLangueisthesetofconventionsandruleswhichlanguageusersal
26、lhavetofollowwhileparoleistheconcreteuseoftheconventionsandtheapplicationoftherules.lLangueisabstract;itisnotthelanguagepeopleactuallyuse,butparoleisconcrete;itreferstothenaturallyoccurringlanguageevents.lLangueisrelativelystable,itdoesnotchangefrequently;whileparolevariesfrompersontoperson,andfroms
27、ituationtosituation.寒假来临，不少的高中毕业生和大学在校生都选择去打工。准备过一个充实而有意义的寒假。但是，目前社会上寒假招工的陷阱很多4)CompetenceandperformancelChomskylCompetencereferstotheknowledgethatnativespeakershaveoftheirlanguageassystemofabstractformalrelationslPerformancereferstowhatwedowhenwespeakorlisten.Theinfinitevariedindividualactsofverbal
28、behaviorwiththeirirregularities,inconsistenciesanderrors.寒假来临，不少的高中毕业生和大学在校生都选择去打工。准备过一个充实而有意义的寒假。但是，目前社会上寒假招工的陷阱很多Howdoyouunderstandcompetenceandperformance?lAmericanlinguistN.Chomskyinthelate1950sproposedthedistinctionbetweencompetenceandperformance.Chomskydefinescompetenceastheidealusersknowledge
29、oftherulesofhislanguage.Thisinternalizedsetofrulesenablesthelanguageusertoproduceandunderstandaninfinitelylargenumberofsentencesandrecognizesentencesthatareungrammaticalandambiguous.AccordingtoChomsky,performanceistheactualrealizationofthisknowledgeinlinguisticcommunication.Althoughthespeakersknowle
30、dgeofhismothertongueisperfect,hisperformancesmayhavemistakesbecauseofsocialandpsychologicalfactorssuchasstress,embarrassment,etc.Chomskybelievesthatwhatlinguistsshouldstudyisthecompetence,whichissystematic,nottheperformance,whichistoohaphazard.寒假来临，不少的高中毕业生和大学在校生都选择去打工。准备过一个充实而有意义的寒假。但是，目前社会上寒假招工的陷阱
31、很多SaussuresdistinctionbetweenlangueandparoleseemssimilartoChomskysdistinctionbetweencompetenceandperformance.Whatdoyouthinkaretheirmajordifferences?lAlthoughSaussuresdistinctionandChomskysareverysimilar,theydifferatleastinthatSaussuretookasociologicalviewoflanguageandhisnotionoflangueisamaterofsocia
32、lconventions,andChomskylooksatlanguagefromapsychologicalpointofviesandtohim,competenceisapropertyofthemindofeachindividual.寒假来临，不少的高中毕业生和大学在校生都选择去打工。准备过一个充实而有意义的寒假。但是，目前社会上寒假招工的陷阱很多SpeechandwritinglSpeechandwritingaretwosystemsoflanguage.lSpeechhaspriorityoverwriting.寒假来临，不少的高中毕业生和大学在校生都选择去打工。准备过一个充
33、实而有意义的寒假。但是，目前社会上寒假招工的陷阱很多Whydoesmodernlinguisticsregardthespokenformoflanguageasprimary,notthewritten?lFirst,thespokenformispriortothewrittenformandmostwritingsystemsarederivedfromthespokenformoflanguage.lSecond,thespokenformplaysagreaterrolethanwritingintermsoftheamountofinformationconveyedanditse
34、rvesawiderrangeofpurposeslFinally,thespokenformisthemediumthroughwhichweacquireourmothertongue.寒假来临，不少的高中毕业生和大学在校生都选择去打工。准备过一个充实而有意义的寒假。但是，目前社会上寒假招工的陷阱很多Ofthetwomediaoflanguage,whydoyouthinkspeechismorebasicthanwriting?l1)Inlinguisticevolution,speechispriortowriting.l2)Ineverydaycommunication,speech
35、playsagreaterrolethanwritingintermsoftheamountofinformationconveyed.l3)Speechisalwaysthewayinwhicheverynativespeakeracquireshismothertongue,andwritingislearnedandtaughtlateratschool.ChapterTwo:Speechsounds:phoneticsandphonology2.1Phonetics2.2Phonology寒假来临，不少的高中毕业生和大学在校生都选择去打工。准备过一个充实而有意义的寒假。但是，目前社会上
36、寒假招工的陷阱很多2.1PhoneticslPhonetics:thescientificstudyofspeechsounds,concerningwithdefiningandclassifyingspeechsounds.lSpeechisachainwiththreestages:productionofthemessage,thetransmissionofthemessageandthereceptionofthemessagelSophoneticsareinthreebranches:articulatoryphonetics(identificationandclassifi
37、cationofindividualsounds),acousticphonetics(analysisandmeasurementofsoundwaves,thephysicalfeaturesofspeechsounds)andauditoryphonetics(perceptionofspeech)寒假来临，不少的高中毕业生和大学在校生都选择去打工。准备过一个充实而有意义的寒假。但是，目前社会上寒假招工的陷阱很多Speechsoundsandnon-speechsoundslWecanmakeavarietyofsounds.Butwechoosesomeoftheminourspeec
38、h.Wemakesoundsbymeansoftheairoutoforintoourbody.Sowehave:Pulmonicandnonpulmonicspeechsoundsinourspeech.Pulmonicegressiveairstreamvsnonpulmonicingressiveairstream寒假来临，不少的高中毕业生和大学在校生都选择去打工。准备过一个充实而有意义的寒假。但是，目前社会上寒假招工的陷阱很多ArticulationofsoundslSpeechorgans:lungs,trachea,larynx,pharyngeal,oralcavities,an
39、dnasalcavities.lGlottis:vocalfoldslVoicing:vibrationofthevocalfolds:voicedandvoiceless:someconsonantsandallvowels寒假来临，不少的高中毕业生和大学在校生都选择去打工。准备过一个充实而有意义的寒假。但是，目前社会上寒假招工的陷阱很多DescriptionofspeechsoundslWeusePhoneticAlphabetstodescribespeechsoundslInternationalPhoneticalphabet(IPA):auniquewrittenrepresent
40、ation(alistofsymbols)ofeverysoundineverylanguagelDiacritics:anymarkinsounddescriptionadditionaltolettersorotherbasicelements.,lNarrowdescription:detailedlBroaddescription:general寒假来临，不少的高中毕业生和大学在校生都选择去打工。准备过一个充实而有意义的寒假。但是，目前社会上寒假招工的陷阱很多ConsonantslConsonantsareproducedbytemporarilyobstructingorrestri
41、ctingtheairstreamasitpassesthroughthemouth.lConsonantsmaybedividedintotwogroupsintermsof2dimensions:theplaceofarticulationandthemannerofarticulation.寒假来临，不少的高中毕业生和大学在校生都选择去打工。准备过一个充实而有意义的寒假。但是，目前社会上寒假招工的陷阱很多寒假来临，不少的高中毕业生和大学在校生都选择去打工。准备过一个充实而有意义的寒假。但是，目前社会上寒假招工的陷阱很多VowelslVowelsarecharacterizedbythea
42、bsenceofobstructionoftheairstreaminthemouth.TheyareproducedwithoutanyobstructionorrestrictionoftheairstreamlThreedimensionsfortheconfigurationofthevowels:openness,backnessandroundinglEachofthedimensionsiscontinuous,thedifferencebetweenanytwovowelsintermsoftheopenness,backnessandroundingisalwaysamatt
43、erofmoreorlesslVowelscanbedistinguishedasoralvowelsandnasalvowels寒假来临，不少的高中毕业生和大学在校生都选择去打工。准备过一个充实而有意义的寒假。但是，目前社会上寒假招工的陷阱很多Cardinalvowelsl8primarycardinalvowelslanother8cardinalvowels,thesecondarycardinalvowels:thefrontroundedandthebackunroundedlMonophthong:avowelwhosequalityremainsstableduringitspr
44、oductionisknownasmonophthong.lDiphthong:Avowelwhosequalitychangedduringitsproduction,infactacombinationoftwomonophthongsisknownasdiphthong.寒假来临，不少的高中毕业生和大学在校生都选择去打工。准备过一个充实而有意义的寒假。但是，目前社会上寒假招工的陷阱很多寒假来临，不少的高中毕业生和大学在校生都选择去打工。准备过一个充实而有意义的寒假。但是，目前社会上寒假招工的陷阱很多寒假来临，不少的高中毕业生和大学在校生都选择去打工。准备过一个充实而有意义的寒假。但是，目
45、前社会上寒假招工的陷阱很多Givethecorrecttechnicaltermsforthefollowingexpressions1)Bothlipsbilabial2)Openingbetweenvocalcordsvoiceless3)Teethdental4)Hardroofofmouthpalatal5)Ridgebehindupperteechalveolar6)Lowerliptoupperteethlabiodental7)Backoftonguetosoftrearroofofmouthvelar寒假来临，不少的高中毕业生和大学在校生都选择去打工。准备过一个充实而有意义的寒
46、假。但是，目前社会上寒假招工的陷阱很多Writethecorrespondingsoundsegmentsaccordingtothedescriptions.la)Voicelessbilabialstop:_p_lb)Voicedalveolarnasal:_n_lc)Voicedvelarstop:_ld)Centrallaxunroundedvowel:_le)Highbacktenseroundedvowel:_u:_寒假来临，不少的高中毕业生和大学在校生都选择去打工。准备过一个充实而有意义的寒假。但是，目前社会上寒假招工的陷阱很多Foreachgroupofsoundslisted
47、below,statethephoneticfeatureorfeatureswhichtheyallshare.a.fvsfricativeb.i:iee:frontc.dlsztalveolard.bdgplosive,voicede.jwvoiced寒假来临，不少的高中毕业生和大学在校生都选择去打工。准备过一个充实而有意义的寒假。但是，目前社会上寒假招工的陷阱很多Whatarethecriteriathatalinguistusesinclassifyingvowels?l1)Vowelsmaybedistinguishedasfront,centralandbackintermsoft
48、hepositionofthetongueinthemouth.l2)Accordingtohowwideourmouthisopened,weclassifythevowelsintofourgroups:closevowels,semiclosevowels,semiopenvowels,andopenvowels.l3)Accordingtotheshapeofthelips,vowelsaredividedintoroundedvowelsandunroundedvowels.l4)TheEnglishvowelscanalsobeclassifiedintolongvowelsand
49、shortvowelsaccordingtothelengthofthesound.寒假来临，不少的高中毕业生和大学在校生都选择去打工。准备过一个充实而有意义的寒假。但是，目前社会上寒假招工的陷阱很多2.2Phonology:SoundpatternslPhonologyfocusesonthelinguistic(phonological)rulesthatareusedtospecifythemannerinwhichspeechsoundsareorganizedandcombinedintomeaningfulunits,whicharethencombinedtoformsyllab
50、les,wordsandsentences.lSoundsarechosentobecombinedindifferentlanguages:numberandtype寒假来临，不少的高中毕业生和大学在校生都选择去打工。准备过一个充实而有意义的寒假。但是，目前社会上寒假招工的陷阱很多Whatarethemajordifferencesbetweenphonologyandphonetics?lTheydifferintheirapproachandfocus.Phoneticsisofageneralnature;itisinterestedinallthespeechsoundsusedin