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1、Ancient Egyptian CivilizationAncient Egypt was an ancient civilization located in Northeastern Africa.It was concentrated along the Nile River in what are now the modern countries of Egypt and Sudan.Pre-dynastic Egypt began to take shape as early as 4000 BC.Southern states,such as Abydos,Naqada,and
2、Hierakonpolis,began to spread their culture to the North and dominate the Northern kings.Abydos emerged as the power center around 3200 BC,launched trade with the Levant,and set the stage for dynastic Egypt.The Ancient Egyptian civilization coalesced around 3150 BC with the political unification of
3、Upper and Lower Egypt under the first pharaoh,Menes/Narmer.The history of ancient Egypt occurred in a series of stable Kingdoms,separated by periods of relative instability known as Intermediate Periods.The Old Kingdom,of the Early Bronze Age,the Middle Kingdom,of the Middle Bronze Age,the New Kingd
4、om,of the Late Bronze Age,and the Napatan/Ethiopian/Kushite/Nubian Kingdom,of the 7th century BC.Egypt reached the pinnacle of its power during the New Kingdom,in the Ramesside period,after which it entered a period of slow decline.Egypt was conquered by a succession of foreign powers in this late p
5、eriod.In the aftermath of Alexander the Greats death,one of his generals,Ptolemy Soter,established himself as the new ruler of Egypt.This Ptolemaic Dynasty ruled Egypt until 30 BC,when it fell to the Roman Empire and became a Roman province.The success of ancient Egyptian civilization came partly fr
6、om its ability to adapt to the conditions of the Nile River Valley.The predictable flooding and controlled irrigation of the fertile valley produced surplus crops,which fueled social development and culture.With resources to spare,the administration sponsored mineral exploitation of the valley and s
7、urrounding desert regions,the early development of an independent writing system,the organization of collective construction and agricultural projects,trade with surrounding regions,and a military intended to defeat foreign enemies and assert Egyptian dominance.Motivating and organizing these activi
8、ties was a bureaucracy of elite scribes,religious leaders,and administrators under the control of a Pharaoh who ensured the cooperation and unity of the Egyptian people in the context of an elaborate system of religious beliefs.The many achievements of the ancient Egyptians include the quarrying,sur
9、veying and construction techniques that facilitated the building of monumental pyramids,temples,and obelisks;a system of mathematics,a practical and effective system of medicine,irrigation systems and agricultural production techniques,the first known ships,Egyptian faience and glass technology,new
10、forms of literature,and the earliest known peace treat.Egypt left a lasting legacy.Its art and architecture were widely copied,and its antiquities carried off to far corners of the world.Its monumental ruins have inspired the imaginations of travellers and writers for centuries.A new-found respect f
11、or antiquities and excavations in the early modern period led to the scientific investigation of Egyptian civilization and a greater appreciation of its cultural legacy.Hellenic CivilizationHellenic CivilizationHellenistic civilization(Greek civilization beyond classical Greeks)represents the zenith
12、 of Greek influence in the ancient world from 323 BC to about 146 BC(or arguably as late as 30 BC).Hellenistic civilization was preceded by the Classical Hellenic period,and followed by Roman rule over the areas Greece had earlier dominated even though much of Greek culture,religion,art and literatu
13、re still permeated Romes rule,whose elite spoke and read Greek as well as Latin.The spread of Hellenistic culture was sparked by the conquests of Alexander the Great.After his ventures of the Persian Empire,Hellenistic kingdoms were established throughout south-west Asia(the Near and Middle East)and
14、 north-east Africa(ancient Egypt and Cyrene in ancient Libya).This resulted in the export of Greek culture and language to these new realms,and moreover Greek colonists themselves.Equally,however,these new kingdoms were influenced by the indigenous cultures,adopting local practices where beneficial,
15、necessary or convenient.Hellenistic civilization thus represents a fusion of the Ancient Greek world with that of the Near East,Middle East and Southwest Asia,and a departure from earlier Greek attitudes towards barbarian cultures.The extent to which genuinely hybrid Greco-Asian cultures emerged is
16、contentious;consensus tends to point towards pragmatic cultural adaptation by the elites of society,but for much of the populations,life would probably have continued much as it had before.The Hellenistic period was characterized by a new wave of Greek colonization(as distinguished from that occurri
17、ng in the 8th-6th centuries BC)which established Greek cities and kingdoms in Asia and Africa.Those new cities were composed of Greek colonists who came from different parts of the Greek world,and not,as before,from a specific mother city.The main cultural centers expanded from mainland Greece to Pe
18、rgamon,Rhodes,and new Greek colonies such as Seleucia,Antioch and Alexandria.This mixture of Greek-speakers gave birth to a common Attic-based dialect,known as Hellenistic Greek,which became the lingua franca through the Hellenistic world.The term Hellenistic itself is derived from (Hlln),the Greeks
19、 traditional name for themselves.It was coined by the historian Johann Gustav Droysen to refer to the spreading of Greek culture and colonization over the non-Greek lands that were conquered by Alexander the Great in the 4th century BC,compared to Hellenic which describes Greek culture in its native
20、 form.There has been much debate about the validity of Droysens ideas,leading many to reject the label Hellenistic(at least in the specific meaning of Droysen).However,the term Hellenistic can still be usefully applied to this period in history,and,moreover,no better general term does so.Ancient Rom
21、an CivilizationAncient Rome was a civilization that grew out of a small agricultural community founded on the Italian Peninsula as early as the 10th century BC.Located along the Mediterranean Sea and centered on the city of Rome,it expanded to one of the largest empires in the ancient world.In its c
22、enturies of existence,Roman civilization shifted from a monarchy to an oligarchic republic to an increasingly autocratic empire.It came to dominate South-Western Europe,South-Eastern Europe and the Balkans,and the Mediterranean region through conquest and assimilation.Plagued by internal instability
23、 and attacked by various migrating peoples,the western part of the empire,including Italy,Hispania,Gaul,Britannia and Africa broke up into independent kingdoms in the 5th century AD.This splintering is the landmark historians use to divide the ancient period from the medieval era and the Dark Ages.T
24、he Eastern Roman Empire survived this crisis and was governed from Constantinople after Diocletian divided the Empire in 286 AD.It comprised Greece,the Balkans,Asia Minor,Syria and Egypt.Despite the later loss of Syria and Egypt to the Arab-Islamic Empire,the Eastern Roman Empire continued for anoth
25、er millennium,until its remains were finally annexed by the emerging Turkish Ottoman Empire.This eastern,Christian,medieval stage of the empire is usually called the Byzantine Empire by historians.Roman civilization is often grouped into classical antiquity with ancient Greece,a civilization that,al
26、ong with the Etruscan civilization and the many other civilizations they conquered and assimilated,inspired much of the culture of ancient Rome.Ancient Rome contributed greatly to government,law,war,art,literature,architecture,technology,religion,and language in the Western world,and its history continues to have a major influence on the world today.