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1、Good is good, but better carries it.精益求精，善益求善。图形联想创意-DiscussionQuestionsofSLAChapter1:Learningafirstlanguage1.Thinkofthreeorfourtelegraphicsentencesthatayoungchildmightproduce.ThesemaybeinEnglishoranotherlanguageyouknowwell.Howaretheselittlesentencessimilartothoseintheadultlanguage?Howaretheydiffere
2、nt?Telegraphicsentences:1:Mommyjuice.2:babyfalldown.3:Daddyuh-oh.Similarity:Thewordorderreflectsthewordofthelanguagetheyarehearing,whichissimilartoadults.Difference:Ayoungchildistendtoleaveoutsuchthingsasarticles,prepositions,andauxiliaryverbs.2.Researchershaveusedbothlongitudinalandcross-sectionala
3、pproachestoinvestigatetheorderofacquisitionofgrammaticalmorphemesinEnglishbyyoungchildren.Describetheseapproachesinyourownwords.Whatarethechallengesandthepotentialbenefitsofeach?Longitudinalapproach:aapproachwhichstudiesthesamelearnersoveranextendedperiodoftime.Cross-sectionalapproach:aapproachwhich
4、studiesdifferentlearnersatthesametime.(e.g.Someoneusescross-sectionalapproachtostudychildrenatdifferentagesandstagesofdevelopment.)Forlongitudinalapproach,itsbenefitisthatitshowstheevidenceforadevelopmentalsequenceororderofacquisition.Itschallengeisthatitfailtofullydemonstratethatchildrendonotmaster
5、themorphemesatthesamerate.Forcross-sectionalapproach,itsbenefitisthatitfullydemonstratesthatchildrenwhoaccuratelyusethelatemorphemescanusetheearlymorphemesaccurately.Buttheverseisnottrue.3.Whatisthewugtest?WhatdothefindingsfromthewugtesttellusaboutChildrensdevelopinglanguage?Whatadvantagesdoesthewug
6、testhaveoverstudiesthatobservechildrenslanguageinnaturalsettings?Canyouthinkofsomedisadvantages?Wugtest:atestbywhichchildrendemonstratethattheyactuallyknowtherulesofmorphology.e.g.Childrenareshownpicturesofimaginarycreatureswithnovelnamesorpeopleperformingmysteriousactions.Forexample,theyaretold,Her
7、eisawug.Nowtherearetwoofthem,therearetwo_.Findings:Bycompletingthesentencesinwugtest,childrendemonstratethattheyactuallypossessimplicitknowledgeoflinguisticmorphology,whichfightsagainstbehaviorism.Advantagesanddisadvantages:Acriticalattributeofthetestisthatthetargetwordbeamade-up(butplausible-soundi
8、ng)pseudoword,sothatthechildwillneverhavehearditbefore.Achildwhoknowsthatthepluralofwitchiswitchesmayhaveheardandmemorizedthatpair,butachildrespondingthatthepluralofwug(whichhehaspresumablyhasneverheard)iswugs,hasapparentlyinferred(perhapsunconsciously)thebasicruleforformingplurals.4.Whatismetalingu
9、isticawareness?Whyisitaprerequisiteforbeingabletounderstandmostjokesandriddles?Thinkofajokeorriddleyouknow.Howismetalinguisticawarenessrelatedtoyourunderstandingofwhatmakesthisjokefunny?Mentalinguisticawareness:theabilitytotreatlanguageasanobject,separatefromthemeaningitconveys.Mentalinguisticawaren
10、essincludesthediscoveryofsuchthingsasambiguitywordsandsentencesthathavemultiplemeaning.Thisgiveschildrenaccesstowordjokes,trickquestions,andriddles.e.g.牙齿在刀口上youcannottreat牙齿asrealteethand刀口astherealknifeedge,buttreat牙齿,刀口asonlywords.5.Whathaveresearchersobservedaboutthefrequencywithwhichyoungchildr
11、enengageinimitationandrepetitivepractice?Inwhatwayareyoungchildrenslinguisticimitationandpracticepatternsdifferentfromthoseofsomeforeignlanguageclasses?Observation:1:Childrensimitationsarenotrandombutselective.2:Theyimitatewhattheyunderstand.3:Theyimitatenewwordsandsentencestructuresuntiltheybecomes
12、olidlygroundedinhislanguage.Mydear,wouldyoulikesomemilk?Mydear,wouldyoulikesomemilk?Mydear,wouldyoulikesomemilk?Difference:differentfromthoseofsomeforeignlanguageclasses,youngchildrenimitatewhattheywanttoimitate.6.Giveexamplesofbothgrammaticalandlexicalovergeneralizationerrorsfoundinearlychildlangua
13、ge.Whatisthegenerallearningprinciplethatunderliessucherrors?Exampleofgrammaticalovergeneralizationerrors:Randall(2,9):Aredogswiggletheirtails？Correctform:Dodogswiggletheirtails?Exampleoflexicalovergeneralizationerrors:Randallhadalittlebumponhishandandhismothersaidthattheydhavetotakehimtothedoctor.Ra
14、ndall(3,0)asks:Why?Sohecandocmylittlebump?Thegenerallearningprinciplethatunderliessucherrors:Childrenappeartopickoutpatternsandthengeneralizethemtonewcontexts.Theycreatenewformsornewusesofwordsuntiltheyfinallyfigureouthowtheformsareusedbyadults.Theirnewsentencesareusuallycomprehensibleandoftencorrec
15、t.Itreflectstheinfluenceofbehaviorisminfirstlanguagelearning.7.HowdothestoriesofVictorandGenie(pages1921)supportthecriticalperiodhypothesis?Doyoufindthisevidenceconvincing?WhydomostresearchersconsiderthattheevidencefromusersofAmericanSignLanguagethatwascollectedbyNewportandhercolleagues(page21)isstr
16、ongersupportfortheCPH?VictorandGeniearechildrenwhohavebeendeprivedofcontactwithlanguageintheirearlyyears.Theirlanguageacquisitiondevicewasstimulatedtoolate,sotheyCANNOTlearnlanguagelikenormalpeople.Theirlanguagedevelopmentwasabnormal.(Victoronlyuttered“lait”asanexcitedexclamationatthesightofmilkandn
17、everusedthewordtocommunicatehisneed.Genieslanguagecontainedmanyofthefeaturesofabnormallanguagedevelopment)SothestoriesofVictorandGeniesupportthecriticalperiodhypothesis.Itisdifficulttoarguethatthehypothesisisconfirmedonthebasisofevidencefromsuchunusualchildrenandtheunknowncircumstancesoftheirearlyli
18、ves.Wecannotknowwhatotherfactorsbesidesbiologicalmaturitymighthavecontributedtotheirinabilitytolearnlanguage.Therefore,thisevidenceisnotconvincing.Reason:1. TheseusersofAmericanSignLanguageareusualchildrenwhoacquiretheirfirstlanguageatdifferentages.Theycomefromlovinghomes,yetdonotreceiveexposuretola
19、nguageattheusualtime.2. Andthecircumstancesoftheirearlylivesareknowntotheresearchers.TheybeginlearningASLoftenwhentheystartattendingaresidentialschoolwheresignlanguageisusedforday-to-daycommunication.3. Inthestudy,therewerethreedistinctgroupsofASLusers:Nativesignerswhowereexposedtosignlanguagefrombi
20、rth,EarlylearnerswhosefirstexposuretoASLbeganatagesfourtosixatschool,andLatelearnerswhofirstcameintocontactwithASLaftertheageof12.ResultsoftheresearchshowedthattheNativegroupoutperformedtheEarlylearnergroupwhooutperformedthelatelearnergroupontestsfocusingongrammaticalmarkers.Thestudysupportsthehypot
21、hesisthatthereisacriticalperiodforfirstlanguagelearning.8.HowarePiagetsandVygotskysviewsoffirstlanguageacquisitionsimilar?Howdotheydiffer?Piaget(early)1:Observedtheactionofinfantsandchildrenandtracedthedevelopmentoftheircognitiveunderstanding2:Childrenscognitivedevelopmentpartlydeterminedhowtheyusel
22、anguage3:Languagewasanumberofsymbolsystemswhicharedevelopedinchildhoodandcanrepresentchildrensknowledge.Vygotsky(strong)1:Referredtowhatthechildcoulddoininteractionwithanother,butnotalone2:Observedtheconversationsandsawtheoriginsofbothlanguageandthought.3:Thoughtwasinternalizedspeechandspeechemerged
23、insocialinteraction,theydevelopedseparatelyandthencombinedtogether,forexample,childrenattheageof3-7wouldtalktothemselves.4:Languagedevelopedentirelyfromsocialinteraction.Similarities:interaction1:Bothofthemwereinteractionists2:languagedevelopsasaresultofthecomplexinterplaybetweentheuniquelyhumanchar
24、acteristicsofthechildandtheenvironmentinwhichthechilddevelops.3:Comparedwithinnatists,moreimportancetotheenvironment，forexample,emphasizingchild-directedspeechlanguageacquisitionissimilartoandinfluencedbyotherskillsandknowledge,ratherthanasindependentofthechildsexperience.Differencestherelativecontr
25、ibutionsofhumanmindandtheenvironmentPiagetInteractionwithphysicalworldcognitiveunderstandinggrowthandlanguagedevelopment.VygotskyInteractionwithphysicalworldthought(internalizedspeech)development;Socialinteractionlanguage(sociallanguage)development;Attheageof2-7,thoughtandlanguagecombine.9.Whatwasun
26、usualaboutJimsexposuretolanguage?Howdoesthiscasesupportaninteractionistperspectiveonlanguageacquisition?Jim,thehearingchildofdeafparents,exposedtolanguageonlythroughtelevisiontotheageof3,9.Hisparentsdidnotusesignlanguagewithhim.Thus,Jimdidnotbeginhislinguisticdevelopmentinnormalenvironmentinwhichapa
27、rentcommunicatedwithhimeitheroralorsignlanguage.Thefactthathehadfailedtoacquirelanguagebeforeinteractingwithadultssuggeststhattheproblemlayintheenvironment.Theexposuretoimpersonalsourcesoflanguagesuchastelevisionisinsufficientforthechildtolearnlanguage.ThecaseofJimemphasizestheimportantofinteraction
28、.One-to-oneinteractiongivesthechildaccesstolanguagewhichisadjustedtohisorherlevelofcomprehension,whichsupportstheinteractionistsperspective.Chapter2:TheoreticalapproachestoexplainingsecondlanguagelearningThebehaviouristperspective10.StatetheContrastiveAnalysisHypothesis(CAH)andexplainwhyitisoftenlin
29、kedtothebehaviouristtheory.Whatareitslimitations?TheCAHpredictsthatwheretherearesimilaritiesbetweenthefirstlanguageandthetargetlanguage,thelearnerwillacquiretarget-languagestructureswithease;wheretherearedifferences,thelearnerwillhavedifficulty.Becausebehavirouristsbelievethatlanguagedevelopmentisvi
30、ewedastheformationofhabitsanditisassumedthatapersonlearningasecondlanguagestartsoffwiththehabitsformedinthefirstlanguageandthatthesehabitsinterferewiththenewonesneededforthesecondlanguage,CAHisoftenlinkedtothebehaviouristtheory.Thereislittledoubtthatalearnersfirstlanguageinfluencestheacquisitionofas
31、econdlanguage.However,researchershavefoundthatnotallerrorspredictedbytheCAHareactuallymade.Furthermore,manyoftheerrorswhichlearnersdomakearenotpredictableonthebasisoftheCAH.11.Whatcontributionhasbehaviourismmadetoourunderstandingofhowlanguagesarelearned?Whatisthetheorynotabletoexplain?Behaviouristsa
32、ccountforlearningintermsofimitation,practice,reinforcement,andhabitformation.Learnersreceivelinguisticinputfromspeakersintheirenvironmentandtheyformassociationsbetweenwordsandobjectsorevents.Thesesassociationsbecomestrongerasexperiencesarerepeated.Learnersreceiveencouragementfortheircorrectimitation
33、,andcorrectivefeedbackontheirerrors.Thetheorymaynotabletoexplainthatsomelearnersarereluctanttotransfercertainfeaturesoftheirlanguagetothesecondlanguages,evenwhenthetranslationequivalentwouldbecorrect.Also,languagelearnersmayuttersomesentencesandexpressionsthattheymaynothearbefore.Theinnatistperspect
34、ive12.Sumup,inyourownwords,themainpointssurroundingthedebateaboutthenatureandavailabilityofUGinSLA.Wheredoyoustand?UGproposedbyChomskypermitsallchildrentoacquirethelanguageoftheirenvironment,duringacriticalperiodintheirdevelopmentbutnotmakesspecificclaiminSLA.Butsomepeoplearguethatevenifsecondlangua
35、gelearnersbegintolearnSLaftertheendofthecriticalperiodandevenifmanyfailtoachievecompletemasteryofthetargetlanguage,theystillknowmoreaboutthelanguagethantheycouldreasonablyhavelearned.TheyinferfromthisthatUGmustbeavailabletosecondlanguagelearnersaswellastothefirstlanguagelearners.IbelievethatUGcanapp
36、liedinSLA,sincewecannotdenythatwecanspeakmoreexpressionsofsecondlanguagethanwehavelearnedbefore.13.NamethefivehypothesesthatmakeupKrashensMonitorModel.Accordingtothismodel,whatconditionsmustbepresentforacquisitiontotakeplace?Whataretheconditionsforlanguagelearning?TherearefivehypothesesthatmakeupKra
37、shensMonitorModel:theacquisition-learninghypothesis,themonitorhypothesis,thenaturalorderhypothesis,theinputhypothesisandtheaffectivefilterhypothesis.InKrashensview,weacquireasweareexposedtosamplesofthesecondlanguagewhichweunderstand.Thishappensinmuchthesamewaythatchildrenpickuptheirfirstlanguagewith
38、noconsciousattentiontolanguageform.Welearnedontheotherhand,viaaconsciousprocessofstudyandattentiontoformandrulelearning.14.WhatarethelimitationsofKrashenstheory?WhydoyouthinkthatKrashensideashavebeensoinfluentialinsecond-andforeign-languageeducation?Limitations:inhisthemonitorhypothesis,itisverydiff
39、iculttoshowevidenceofmonitoruse.Inanygivenutterance,itisimpossibletodeterminewhathasbeenproducedbytheacquiredsystemandwhatistheresultofmonitoruse.Inhistheinputhypothesis,whileheacknowledgedthatsomepeoplewhoareexposedtoextensivecomprehensibleinputdonotachievehighlevelsofproficiencyinthesecondlanguage
40、.Influence:theaffectivefilterhypothesishaveimmediateimplicationsforclassroompractice.Teacherscanunderstandwhysomelearners,giventhesameopportunitytolearn,maybesuccessfulwhileothersarenot.Also,Krashenstheorysupportcommunicativelanguageteaching,particularlyinNorthAmerica.Thecognitiveperspective15.Howdo
41、esinformation-processingmodelexplainSLA?Information-processingmodelexplainSLAasthebuildingupofknowledgesystemthateachcaneventuallybecalledonautomaticallyforspeakingandunderstanding.Interactionistposition16.InwhatwayareproponentsoftheinteractionistpositioninSLAinagreementwithKrashensmonitormodel?Inwh
42、atwaydotheygobeyondit?InteractionistpositioninSLAagreeswithKrashenthatcomprehensibleinputisnecessaryforlanguageacquisition.However,Interactionistpositionismoreconcerenedwiththeacquisitionofhowinputismadecomprehemsible.17.Whatkindsofconversationalmodificationsdonativespeakersmakewhentheytalktonon-nat
43、ivespeakers?Whatsimilaritiesanddifferenceswouldyouexpecttofindbetweenthesemodificationsandthosethatareobservedinchild-directedspeech?Why?Simplification,elaboration,slowerspeechrate,gestureortheprovisionofadditionalcontextualcues.Similarities:thepurposeofallthesekindsofmodificationistomakeSLlearnersu
44、nderstandtheutterance.Differences:thewaystheyusetomodifytheirutterancearedifferent.Becausetheywaysofmodificationshouldbechosenaccordingtodifferentcontextandtherecipients.18.SeveraltheoriesforL2learninghavebeenproposedinthischapter.Isoneofthemmoreconsistentwithyourownunderstandingofhowlanguagesarelea
45、rned?Ifso,howhaveyourexperiencesasalearnerbroughtyoutothisview?SeveraltheoriesforL2inthischapter:behaviourism,CHA,innatism,UniversalGrammar,Krashensmonitormodel,informationprocessing,connectionism,TheinteractionistpositionFormyownperspective,behaviourism(imitation,practice,reinforcementandhabitforma
46、tion)ismoreconsistentwithmyownunderstandingofhowlanguagesarelearned.Forexample:whenwelearned“Ilikeapples,”wewouldusepeaches,pears,bananas,grapestoreplaceapples.Chapter3:Factorsaffectingsecondlanguagelearning19.WhyisitdifficulttoassesstheinfluencethatpersonalcharacteristicshaveonthedevelopmentofL2pro
47、ficiency?Allofthecharacterslistedabovecanbeclassifiedintofivemaincategories:motivation,aptitude,personality,intelligence,learnerspreferences.However,manyofthecharacterscannotbeassignedexclusivelytoonecategory.Forexample,thecharacteristic“iswillingtomakemistakes”canbeconsideredapersonalityoramotivati
48、onalfactor.Toconclude,thereareseveralproblemscausingdifficultiesinassessingtheinfluencethatpersonalcharacteristicshaveonthedevelopmentofL2proficiency:(1)Itisnotpossibletodirectlyobserveandmeasurequalitiessuchasmotivation,extroversion,orevenintelligence.(2)Howlanguageproficiencyisdefinedandmeasuredisdifficult.(3)Thereistheproblemofinterpretingthecorrelationoftwofactorsasbeingduetoacausalrelationshipbetweenthem.Intelligence20.LanguagelearnersperformanceonIQtestsisrelatedtocertainaspectsofL2abilitybutnottoothers.Giveexamplestoexplainthisstatement.