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1、自考英语词汇学Introduction 局部：Lexicology 这门课是哪一种学科的分支?lexicology is a branch of linguistics.Lexicology和那些重要的学科建立了联络:1)Morphology 2) Semantics 3) Stylistics 4) Etymology 5) Lexicography讨论lexicology 的两大方法:1) Diachronic approach : 历时语言学2) Synchronic approach : 共时语言学，wife；纵观历时语言学的方法论，woman 词义的改变算是词义改变的哪一种形式？Wo
2、man 的词义的改变算Narrowing or specialization第一章What is word ?词具有哪些特点？词的特点也就是对词的名词说明。1) A word is a minimal free form of a language;2) A sound unity or a given sound ;3) a unit of meaning;4) a form that can function alone in a sentence.以上词的四个特点也就是词的名词说明词的分类（classification of a word）词依据发音可以分为哪两种词？或者说词依据拼法可以
3、分为哪两类词？1) simple words 2) complex words单音节词例子：e.g. Man and fine are simple多音节词例子：e.g. Management, misfortune, blackmailmanagement 可以次划分为manage 和 ment misfortune 可以次划分为mis- 和 fortuneblackmail 次划分为black 和 mailWhat is the relationship between sound and meaning?1)There is no logical relationship between
4、 the sound and actual thing.e.g. dog. cat2)The relationship between them is conventional.3) In different languages the same concept can be represented bydifferent sounds.What is relationship between sound and form?1)The written form of a natural language is the written record of the oral form. Natur
5、ally the written form should agree with the oralform, such as English language.2)This is fairly true of English in its earliest stage i.e. Old English3)With the development of the language, more and more differences occur between the two.What are the great changes that causes illogical relationship
6、or irregularity between sound and form?1) The internal reason for this is that the English alphabet was adopted from the Romans, which does not have a separate letter tore present each sound in the language so that some letters must do double duty or work together in combination.2) Another reason is
7、 that the pronunciation has changed more rapidly than spelling over the years, and in some cases the two have drawn farapart.3) A third reason is that some of the differences were created by the early scribes.4) Finally comes the borrowing, which is an important channel of enriching the English voca
8、bulary.要记住以上四句话中的关键词：1) influenced by Romans2) Pronunciation changed3) early scribes4) borrowing你能不能举出外来语对英语发音,拼法造成不一样的例子有哪些？e.g. stimulus (L) ,fiesta (Sp) ,eureka (Gr), kimono (Jap)外来语对英语造成的最大的影响就是sound and form 不一样。What is vocabulary? Vocabulary refers to the total number of the words in a languag
9、e, but it can stand for all the words used in a particular historical period.Vocabulary also refers to all the words of a given dialect, given book, a given discipline and the words possessed by an individual person.Classification of Words (本课重点)What is the classification of words? How to classify w
10、ords in linguistics? Three criteria :1) By use of frequency 2) By notion 3) By originBy use of frequency 可划分为：1) The basic word stock 2) Nonbasic word vocabulary By notion 可划分为：1) Content word2) Functional word Content words are also known as notional words . (Content words 的别称)Functional words are
11、also known as empty words, or form words. (Functional words 的别称)Functional words possesses a characteristic of basic word stock, i.e. stability According to Stuart Robertson ,et al (1957),* (年年考试必考) the nine functional words , namely ,and , be , have , it , of , the , to , will ,you What are the cha
12、racteristics of basic word stock?1) All national character2) Stability3) Productivity4) Polysemy5) Collocability要把握住All national character词,就是和我们日常生活休戚相关的，最一般词稳定性是根本词的一个很大特点，请你举例说明？e.g. man, woman , fire, water e.g. machine, video, telephone e.g. bow, chariot , knight Stability is relative, not abso
13、lute.依据词的use frequency 划分出的根本词之外，还有一类词叫作None basic vocabulary, 非根本词有几大特点？或者是几大分类？1) Terminology e.g. sonata, algebra2) Jargon e.g. Bottom line ( Jargon ) 3) Slang e.g. smoky, bear ( Slang ) 4) Argot e.g. persuader5) Dialectal words e.g. station ( AusE = ranch ) bluid ( ScotE= blood)6) Archaisms e.g.
14、 wilt (will)7) Neologisms e.g. email ( Neologisms )beaver 是girl 的slang 表达方式，但是二者之间存在着Stylistic differenceWhich constitutes the larger number among English vocabulary, content words or functional words ? Answer : Content words What is native words? Answer : (1) By origin, English words can be classif
15、ied into native words and borrowed words.(2) Native words are words brought to Britain in the fifth century by the German tribes: the Angles, the Saxons, and the Jutes, thus know asAnglo-Saxon words. (3) Words of Anglo-Saxon origin are small in number ,amounting to roughly 50,000 to 60,000, but they
16、 form the mainstream of the basic word stock and stand at the core of the language什么叫borrowed words?Answer: (1) words taken over from foreign languages are know as borrowed words or loan words or borrowings in simple terms.(2) It is estimated that English borrowings constitute 80 percent of the mode
17、rn English vocabulary (3) The English language has vast debts .In any dictionary some 80% of the entries are borrowed.什么叫Denizens?Denizens are words borrowed early in the past and now are well assimilated into the English language. In other words they have come to conform to the English way of pronu
18、nciation and spelling, such as port from portus (L).Denizens的例子都要记：Port from portus (L), cup from cuppa (L),shift from skipta (ON), shirt from skyrta (ON), change from changier (F), pork from porc (F).什么叫Translation-loans ?Translation-loans are words and expressions formed form the existingmaterial
19、in the English language but modeled on the patterns taken from another language, such as long time no see from haojiumeijian (Ch)什么叫Semantic-loans ?words of this category are not borrowed with reference to the form ,But their meaning are borrowed , in other words, English has borrowed a new meaning
20、for an existing word in the language ,such as the word dream ,which originally meant joy and music , and its modern meaning was borrowed later from the Norse.第二章：The development of the English vocabularyThe Indo-European Language Family It is assumed that the world has approximately 3,000(some put i
21、t5,000)languages ,which can be grouped into roughly 300 language families on the basis of similarities in their basic word stock and grammar . (重点：语系划分的标准)What is the criteria to divide language families ?The answer : 1. the basis of similarities in their basic word stock 2. grammar(重点)The Balto-Sla
22、vic comprises such modern languages as(选择题内容：)Prussian, Lithuanian , Polish ,Czech, Bulgarian ,Slovenian and Russian.Indo-European 两大分支：1.Eastern set 2.Western set Eastern set: Balto-Slavic, Indo-Iranian, Armenian and Albanian Western set : Celtic, Italic , Hellenic, Germanic. In the western Set, Gr
23、eek is the modern language derived from Hellenic. Celtic ：Scottish, Irish, Welsh, Breton The five Romance languages, namely ,Portuguese, Spanish, French, Italian , Roumanian all belong to the Italic. The Germanic family consists of the four Northern European Languages: Norwegian ,Icelandic, Danish a
24、nd Swedish ,which are generally known as Scandinavian languages. Then there is German, Dutch ,Flemish and English.With Vikings invasion, many Scandinavian words came into the English language. It is estimated that at least 900 words of Scandinavian origin have survived in modern English. Old English
25、 has a vocabulary of about 50,000 to 60,000 words. It was a highly inflected language just like modern German.重点句: Modern English began with the establishment of printing in England古英语最大的模糊性的概念来自于 (scripts )古英语正因为出现印刷术才打破了 ( early scripts)Sound and form 真正到达统一是在什么时期？.Sound and form reached their con
26、cord in ( Modern English period )假设从词汇改变的角度而言，Modern English 又可以细划分为 early period ,modern period.*现代英语早期阶段属于哪一种文化现象的开展时期 （重要的选择或填空内容）Early modern English appeared in the RenaissanceModern English period 有什么样的外来语的进入？The Latin words swarmed into English in early modern English period现代英语时期，英语词汇大量丰富还有另
27、外一个缘由是 (colonization)The richness of Modern English in vocabulary also arises from(Colonization )The English language has evolved from a synthetic language to the present analytic language ( 重要选择或填空内容)Growth of Present-day English VocabularyThree main sources of new words :1)The rapid development of
28、 modern science and technology 2)Social, economic and political changes;3)The influence of other cultures and language 2.4 Modes of Vocabulary Development1)creation 2) semantic change 3) borrowing2)Semantic change （还包括外来词的Semantic loans ）Elevation, degradation, extension, narrowing, transfer 外来词可以被称
29、作borrowed words , 因此又可以被称作 .重点句：borrowed words are also known as loaned words .复原古英语的用词是美国英语的一大特色Reviving archaic or obsolete words also contributes to the growth of English vocabulary though quite insignificant. This is especially trueof American English.英语从synthetic language 开展到present analytical
30、language 是在英语的哪一个阶段完成的？答案：Modern English period文艺复兴时期，恰逢英语开展的哪个阶段?答案：Early Modern English period在英语开展过程 在哪个阶段出现三语鼎立的现象？French, Latin, English in Middle English period easel, port, freight, 出现于英语开展的哪个阶段，属于哪一种外来词的引入？答案：Middle English , Dutch在英语开展的某一个阶段，有一种语言进入英语，它一共带来了2500 个词汇，这种语言是什么？答案：Dutch (前年考题)据
31、现代语言学家的统计，英语中目前所占本族词的数量有多少?答案：50,000 to 60,000 他们的来源是(Anglo_Saxon tongue )第二次世界大战以后，大量外来词进入英语中，如：Mao jackets , black belt , kongfu, 这些词属于英语词汇开展的Present - day English Vocabulary 留意：第二章出大题的内容无非就是请简述印欧语系的开展及组成。Old English 和 Middle English 最大的striking distinction 存在于哪一个方面?答案：Old English was a language o
32、f full endings, Middle English was one of leveled endings.文艺复兴时期，哪两种文化得到了复兴，这对英语词汇的丰富具有什么样的影响?答案：Greek , Roman culture某些希腊词被引入到了英语是在什么阶段?答案：Modern English十六世纪，有一种新工业出现对词汇的开展产生重要的影响，这是哪一种industry?答案：Printing这导致sound and form 出现concord , 出现standardization.第三章The smallest unit in the English language r
33、efers to (morphemes)The minimal free form in the English language refers to (word)In the plural form changing, some of the words will take internal vowel change , this internal vowel change is called (allomorphs)Deer 复数没有变,还是deer, sheep 复数没有变,还是sheep, 因此,这种改变被称作(zero derivation)名词说明:Morphemes : The
34、minimal meaningful units in a language are known as morphemes. In other words, the morphemes isthe smallest functioning unit in composition of words Allomorphs : The alternative morphs are known as allomorphs, e.g.the morpheme of plurality -s has a number of allomorphs in different sound context, e.
35、g. in cats in bags, matches It can be realized by the change of an internal vowel as in foot-feet, man-men, goose-geese or by zero morphs as in deer-deer, fish-fish简答题： what are the types of morphemes ? ( 答简答题时,名词说明)答案：Free morphemes and bound morphemes 。Free morphemes : 1) Free morphemes are indepe
36、ndent of other morphemes and are considered to be free.2) These morphemes have complete meanings in themselves and can be used as free grammatical units in sentences. 3) They are identical with root words, as each of them consists of a single free root words ,as each of them consists of a single fre
37、e root 4) free morphemes are free roots. bound morphemes: 1) Morphemes which cannot occur as separate words are bound. 2) They are bound to other morphemes to form words. 3) Bound morphemes include two types: bound root and affix affix 分为两类: inflectional and derivational affixes. Inflectional affixe
38、s : Affixes attached to the end of words to indicate grammatical relationships are inflectional, thus known as inflectional morphemes. Derivational affixes: 1)derivational affixes are affixes added to other morphemes to create now words.2) Derivational affixes can be further divided into prefixes an
39、d suffixes. root : 1) a root is the basic form of a word which cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity. 2) the root, whether free or bound, generally carries the main component of meaning in a word 3) a root is that part of a wordform that remains when all inflectional and derivati
40、onal affixes have been removed stem : 1) a stem may consist of a single root morpheme as in iron or of two root morphemes as in a compound like handcuff. 2) It can be a root morpheme plus one or more affixational morphemes as inmouthful, underestimate. 3) Therefore, a stem can be defined as a form t
41、o which affixes of any kind can be added.问题：Stem 和 root 有一个最大的区分在哪里? ( 连着两年没有考过)答案： a stem can be defined as a form to which affixes of any kind can be added.问题：请加以区分下面两个词的特征: nation , dict 请加以理论的分析?Both nation and dict belong to roots, nation is free root, which can function alone in a sentence, Na
42、tion as a free root, has complete meaning, when both prefixes and suffixes attached to it are removed, nation as a free root, still remains Dict is a bound root, which can not function alone grammatically , dict carries the fundamental meaning of words, dict has to combine with the other morphemes t
43、o create new words , for example , dictionary , contradiction .问题：分析下面一句话: He is much more cleverer than any other one in the village, too heads are better than one.请从构词角度分析以上的例子,cleverer , better cleverer (-er : inflectional affixes ) better ( good , well 的特别改变) It is allomorph of good and well.第四章
44、问题：在英语中,主要的构词法分为哪几种?答案：有七种:1) Affixation 2) Compounding 3) conversion 4) shortening 5) clipping 6) acronymy 7) blending有三种最常用: affixation , compounding and conversion问题：由专出名词变为一般名词是词义改变的哪一种?答案：Extension 问题：由一般名词变为专出名词是词义改变的哪一种形式?答案：Narrowing问题：Affixation 又被称为什么? 它分为哪两类？答案：Affixation is also known as
45、 derivation Affixation falls into two subclasses : prefixation and suffixation 要点: 有哪些前缀属于什么样的类别:a-, non, ir : negative prefixes de- , dis- ( 既属于negative , 也属于reversative prefixes ) mal-, pseudo-, mis- : pejorative prefixes super , sur-, extra ： prefixes of degree or size anti-, contra-, counter-, p
46、ro- : prefixes of orientation and attitudetrans-, fore- tele- : locative prefixes fore-, post- : prefixes of time and order bi-, uni-, semi- : number prefixes pan-, vice - : miscellaneous prefixessuffixation : 1. Noun suffixes 1) Denominal nouns 2) Deverbal nouns3) De-adjective nouns: ity, -ness, 4)
47、 Noun and adjective suffixes留意Compounding, acoronymy , blending , conversion , clipping 的名词说明.要点: 复合词分为哪三类: 1)solid 2) hyphenated 3) open简答题: what are the characteristics of compounds ?What are the difference between compounds and free phrases ?答案：1) phonetic features2) Semantic features3) Grammatic
48、al features最常见的三种词性 : 1) Noun compound 2) Adjective compounds 3) verb compounds问题：在名词性复合词中有哪几种有多产性, 哪两种不具有多产性?在形容性复合词当中, 哪三类有多产性?动词性复合词是靠哪两种方法复合在一起的?*名词说明:Conversion ( 重点，还没考过)Conversion is the formation of new words by converting words of oneclass to another class. Functional shift = conversion Zer
49、o-derivation ( 选择或填空要点)Adjective to noun : (1) full conversion (2) partial conversion问题：形容词转为动词分为哪两类？答案：由Adjective to verbs : (1) Transitive (2) Intransitive简答题: 形容词变动词的三种类别( 没考过)问题：请你举出由conjunction 变为noun 的一个例子?答案： Ifs and buts blending are also called blends or portmanteau words ( 选择或填空要点)问题：blending 分为哪四类合成词？1. head + tail 2. head + head 3. head + word 4. word + tail问题: 绝大多数blending 都是什么词性?答案：nouns，The overwhe