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1、Chapter 1 1 - The definition of a word comprises the following points: (1) a minimal free form of a language; (2) a sound unity; (3) a unit of meaning; (4) a form that can function alone in a sentence. language A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntac
2、tic function. 1 词定义包括以下几点： （ 1 ）一门语言中最小的自由形式; （ 2 ）一个声音的统一体 （ 3 ）一个意义单位; （ 4 ）在一个句子中独立起作用的一个形式。 词是一门语言中具有确定的声音 一门语言中具有确定的声音、 词是一门语言中具有确定的声音、意义和句法功能的最小的自由形式 2- Sound and Meaning: symbolic connection is almost always arbitrary and conventional. A dog is called a dog not because the sound and the three
3、 letters that make up the word just automatically suggest the animal in question. 2 -声音和意义：象征性联络几乎总是随意和约定成俗的 狗称为狗不是因为这个声音以及这三个字母在一起就能自动表示这种动物。 3- Old English, the speech of the time was represented very much more faithfully in writing than it is today. The internal reason for this is that the Englis
4、h alphabet was adopted from the Romans, which does not have a separate letter to represent each sound in the language so that some letters must do double duty or work together in combination. 3 古代英语，随着语言的开展，声音和形式之间的差异越来越大。产生这种差异的内在缘由是英语拼 写采纳了拉丁字母，从而使英语中的每个音位并不能都用单独的字母来表示，有些字母必需起双重职能或组 合在一起来表示一个音4 An
5、other reason is that the pronunciation has changed more rapidly than spelling over the years, and in some cases the two have drawn far apart. 另一个缘由是，发音比拼法变更的快，在某些状况下，两者产生了很大的差异。 A third reason is that some of the differences were created by the early scribes. 第三个缘由是，是由于早期抄写僧所造成的一些差异。 Finally comes t
6、he borrowing, which is an important channel of enriching the English vocabulary. 最终一个缘由是外来词。外来词是丰富了英语词汇的重要途径。 5 - Vocabulary: All the words in a language make up its vocabulary. Not only can it refer to the total number of the words in a language, but it can stand for all the words used in a particu
7、lar historical period. We also use it to refer to all the words of a given dialect, a given book, a given discipline and the words possessed by an individual person. The general estimate of the present-day English vocabulary is over million words. 5 -词汇：一门语言中全部的词构成该语言的词汇。“词汇”一词具有多重含义。它不仅可以指一门语言的词汇量，
8、还可以指某一特制定时期的词汇。我们还可以用该词指称某一方言 的词汇、某一本书的词汇、某一学科的词汇，甚至还可指某个人的词汇量。英语是世界上高度兴旺的语言之 一，也是词汇量最大、最丰富的语言之一。据初步统计，当代英语词汇量已达 100 多万词。6 - Words may fall into the basic word stock and nonbasic vocabulary by use frequency, into content words and functional words by notion, and into native words and borrowed words
9、by origin. 按运用频率分，词可以分为根本词汇和非根本词汇;按有无实义来分，词可以分为实义词和功能词；按起源 分，它又可分为本族语词和外来语词。 7 - The basic word stock is the foundation of the vocabulary accumulated over centuries and forms the common core of the language. Though words of the basic word stock constitute a small percentage of the English vocabulary
10、, yet it is the most important part of it. These words have obvious characteristics.-一门语言的根本词汇是长期积累下来的，是该语言的共核。虽然英语中的根本词汇只占总词汇量的一小局部，但却是最重要的局部。根本词汇 具有下列明显的特点。 8 - All national character. Words of the basic word stock denote the most common things and phenomena of the world around us, which are indis
11、pensable to all the people language。 relating who speak the language。They include words relating to the following respects: Natural phenomena/Human body and relations/Names of plants and animals/Action, size, domain, state/Numerals, pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions 全民性。根本词汇指称我们四周世界最常见的食物和现象，是讲这门
12、语言的人们所必不行少的。根本词汇包 括以下几个方面相关的词：自然现象/人体和人们之间的关系/动、植物名称/行为、尺寸、范畴，状态/数词、 代词、介词、连词等 9 - Stability. Words of the basic word stock have been in use for centuries.-稳定 性。根本词汇长期为人们所运用。 10 Productivity . Words of the basic word stock are mostly root words or monosyllabic words.They can each be used alone, and
13、at the same time can form new words with other roots and affixes.能产性。根本词汇大多根词或单音节词。他们可以分别单独运用，也可以和其他根源和词缀一起构成新词。 11 - Polysemy. Words belonging to the basic word stock often possess more than one meaning because most of them have undertone semantic changes in the course of use and become polysemous.
14、多义词。根本词中的词由于长期运用过程中产生了语义变更，単义变成了多义。 12 - Collocability . Many words of the basic word stock quite a number of set expressions, idiomatic usages, proverbial sayings and the like. 搭配性。根本词汇中的很多词形成了诸多固定的词语，惯用用法，习语和谚语等。 Words, void of the stated characteristics, do not belong to the commom core of the la
15、nguage. they include the following.不具备上述特点的词不属于改语言的共核，包括： 13 - Terminology consists of technical terms used in particular disciplines and academic areas 术语。是指特定学科和叙述领域所运用的专出名词。 14 - Jargon refers to the specialized vocabularies by which members of particular arts, sciences, trades and professions co
16、mmunicate among themselves such as in business.-行话。是流行于艺术，科学，商业和其他职业内部的专出名词。 15 - Slang belongs to the sub-standard language, a category that seems to stand between the standard general words including informal ones available to everyone and in-group words like cant, jargon, and argot, all of which
17、are associated with, or most available to, specific groups of the population. -俚语属非标准语言，介于一般标准词汇和团体内部用词 之间，如套语、行话和黑语，都在特定人群中流行。 Slang is created by changing or extending the meaning of existing words though some slang words are new coinages altogether. Slang is colorful, blunt, expressive and 2 impr
18、essive. 俚语大多还是由现有词汇语义的变更或引申，只有少数是自创的，俚语在表达上富有色调，干脆，表现力强，效果明显。 16 - Argot generally refers to the jargon of criminals 黑话通常指罪犯的行话. 17 - Dialectal words are words used only by speakers of the dialect in question. 方言词限于讲方言的人所运用。 18 - Archaisms are words or forms that were once in common use but are now
19、restricted only to specialized or limited use.古语词是指过去曾经广泛运用而如今仅限于某些特殊用法的词。 19 - Neologisms are newly-created words or expressions, or words that have taken on new meanings.-新词语是指新创建的词语或又产生新义的旧词。 20 - By notion, words can be grouped into content words and functional words. Content words denote clear
20、notions and thus are known as notional words. They include nouns, verbs, adjectives,adverbs and numerals, which denote objects, phenomena, action, quality, state, degree, quantity. 20 词汇可以根据有无实义分为实义词和功能词。实义词表示明确的概念，它们包括名词，动词，形容词，副词和数词，表示事物、现象、行动、物质、状态、程度、数量等。 21 - Functional words do not have notion
21、s of their own. Therefore, they are also called empty words. As their chief function is to express the relation between notions, the relation between words as well as between sentences, they are known as form words. Prepositions, conjunctions, auxiliaries and articles belong to this category. 21 功能词
22、本身不具有实义，因此又称为虚词。虚词就是表示两个实义之间的关系以及词及词之间、句子 及句子之间的关系，也可称为形式词。虚词有介词，连词，助动词和冠词。 22 - However, functional words do far more work of expression in English on average than content words. -然而在英语中，功能词比实义词起着更重要的作用。 23 - Native words are words brought to Britain in the fifth century by the German tribes; the A
23、ngles, the Saxons, and the Jutes, thus known as Anglo-Saxon words 英 语本族语词是公元 5 世纪由日耳曼部落盎格鲁人、萨克逊人和朱特人带入英国的，又称盎格鲁-萨克逊词语。 24 - Apart from the characteristics mentioned of the basic word stock, in contrast to borrowed words, native words have two other features: 除了上文提到的英语根本词汇的共同特点外，及外来语词相比，本族语词还有另外两个特点：
24、 1）Neutral in style. they are not stylistically specific. 文体上中性。文体上有什么特定的色调。 Stylistically, natives words are neither formal nor informal whereas the words borrowed from French or Latin are literary and learned, thus appropiate in formal style. 从文体上来讲，本族语词无所谓正式或者不正式，而来源于法语和拉丁语的外来词富有文学色调，为有学问人所用，运用的场
25、合也较为正式。 2）Frequent in use. Native words are most frequently used in everyday speech and writing. 运用频繁。本族语词在日常口语和书面语中运用的最为频繁。 25 - Words taken over from foreign languages are known as borrowed words or loan words or borrowings in simple terms. It is estimated that English borrowings constitute 80 per
26、cent of the modem English vocabulary. The English language is noted for the remarkable complexity and heterogeneity of its vocabulary because of its extensive borrowings 来自其他语言的词简称为外来词或者借词。英英语中源于其他主要语言的借词有很多，据估计，现代英语词汇有 80%是借词。由于广泛地运用借词，英语中的词汇呈现极为困难而不纯的场面。 26 According to the degree of assimilation
27、and manner of borrowing,we can bring the loan-words under four classes.根据同化的程度和借词的方式，可以把外来语词归为 4 类。 1）Denizens. denizens are words borrowed early in the past and now well assimilated into the English language.同化词是指早期从其他语言中借来现今已被英语通话了的词。 2）Aliens are borrowed words which have retained their original
28、pronunciation and spelling. These words are immediately recognizable as foreign in origin -非同化词是仍保存他们原来的发音和拼法形式的词。仅从发音和拼法形式我们便可看出这些词是外来词. 3）Translation-loans. they are words which have retained their original pronunciation and spelling.译借词，是利用母语现有的词语但在构词形式上仿照了外语而构成的词。 4）Semantic-loans. Words of this
29、 category are not borrowed with reference to the form. But their meanings are borrowed. In other words, English has borrowed a new meaning for an existing word in the language. 借义词，只借义，不借形。换句话说，英语利用现有词的形式给予其新的外来语含义。 Chapter 2 1 - It is assumed that the world has approximately 3, 000 (some put it 5,
30、000 ) languages, which can be grouped into roughly 300 language families on the basis of similarities in their basic word stock and grammar.-据估计，世界上约有 3 000 多种（有人认为 5 000 种 ）语言，这些语言可以根据他们的根本词汇和语法的相像性大致划分为 300 个谱系。 2 - The Indo-European is one of them. It is made up of most of the languages of Europe
31、, the Near East, and India. -印欧语就是其中之一。该语系包括欧洲的大多数语言、近东诸语言和古梵语。 3 - They accordingly fall into eight principal groups, which can be grouped into an Eastern set: Balto-Slavic , Indo-Iranian , Armenian and Albanian ; a Western set: Celtic, Italic, Hellenic, Germanic. 3 这些语族相应地分为 8 大语族，这 8 大语族又可分为东部诸语族
32、。东部诸语族有波罗的海-斯拉夫语族，印 度-伊朗语族，亚美尼亚-阿尔巴尼亚语族;西部诸语族有凯尔特语族，意大利语族，希腊语族，日耳曼语族。 4 - In the Eastern set, Armenian and Albanian are each the only modern language respectively. The Balto-Slavic comprises such modern languages as Prussian, Lithuanian, Polish, Czech, Bulgarian, Slovenian and Russian. 4，在东部诸语族中，亚美尼
33、亚-阿尔巴尼亚语族都只留下今日的亚美尼亚语和阿尔巴尼亚语。波罗的海-斯 拉夫语族包括普鲁士语，立陶宛语，波兰语，捷克语，保加利亚语，斯洛文尼亚语和俄语等。 5 - In the Indo-Iranian we have Persian. Bengali, Hindi, Romany, the last three of which are derived from the dead language Sanskrit. 5 -印度-伊朗语族语族波斯语。孟加拉国语，印地语，普吉赛语，后 3 门语言来源于已经消亡的古梵语。 6 - In the Western set, Greek is the
34、modern language derived from Hellenic. 6 -在西部诸语族中，现代希腊语来源于古希腊语族。 7 - The Germanic family consists of the four Northern European Languages: Norwegian, Icelandic, Danish and Swedish, which are generally known as Scandinavian languages. Then there is German, Dutch, Flemish and English. 7 -日耳曼语族包括 4 门北欧
35、语言：挪威语，冰岛语，丹麦语和瑞典语，这 4 门语言统称为斯堪的纳维亚 语。其次是德语，荷兰语，佛兰芒语和英语。 8 - Old English (450-1150) Anglo-Saxon as Old English. Old English has a vocabulary of about 50, 000 to 60, 000 words. It was a highly inflected language just like moderm German. 4 8 盎格鲁-撒克逊语被称为古英语。古英语约有 50000 至 60000 词汇。而且也如现代德语一样是一门典型的 屈折语。
36、9 - Middle English (1150-1500) -中古英语（ 1150 年至一五 年） Although there were borrowings from Latin, the influence on English was mainly Germanic. Between 1250 and 1500 about 9000 words of French origin poured into English. Seventy-five percent of them are still in use today. If we say that Old English was
37、 a language of full endings. Middle English was one of leveled endings. 9 虽然英语也从拉丁语中借词，但影响英语的主要还是日耳曼语。 从 1250 年到 1500 年的 250 年间，大约有 9000 个法语词汇进入到英语中，其中 75%仍在运用。这些词语人 类社会的各个方面都有关系。 假设说古英语近视此为的话，那么中古英语的词尾已去了一半 10 - Modern English (1500-up to now) -现代英语（ 1500 到如今） Modern English began with the establis
38、hment of printing in England. 现代英语开场于印刷术传入英国。 Early (1500-1700) and Late (1700-up to the present) Modern English 如今英语分为早期（ 1500 至 1700 年）现代英语和晚期（ 1700 -至今）现代英语 In the early period of Modern English, Europe saw a new upsurge of learning ancient Greek and Roman classics. This is known in history as th
39、e Renaissance. 在早期现代英语阶段，欧洲掀起了学习希腊和罗马的古典著作的运动。这场运动史称文艺复兴。 Latin and Greek were recognized as the languages of the Western worlds great literary heritage and of great scholarship. 当时拉丁语和希腊语被认为是达标西方世界绚丽文学遗产的语言，是学术语言 In fact, more than twenty-five percent of modern English words come almost directly fr
40、om classical languages. 事实上，现代英语词汇中有 25%以上几乎是干脆从古典语言中干脆介入的（WBD）。 In modern English, word endings were mostly lost with just a few exceptions. It can be concluded that English has evolved from a synthetic language (Old English) to the present analytic language.在现代英语中，除了少数几个词之外，词尾几乎都消逝了。可以这样说，英语已从古英语的
41、综合型语言开展成了如今的分析型语言 。 11 - Three main sources of new words: the rapid development of modern science and technology 45 ） social, economic and political changes 11 ） the influence （ ; （ ; of other cultures and languages（ 24 ）. 11 -新词的产生有 3 大来源：现代科学和技术的迅猛开展（ 45 ） ;社会，经济和政治的变更（ 11 ） ; 其它文化和语言的影响（ 24 ）。 12
42、 - Modern English vocabulary develops through three channels: creation, semantic change, borrowing. 现代英语词汇的开展主要通过三个渠道：创词、旧词新义和借词。 13.Creation refers to the formation of new words by using the existing materials, namely roots, affixes and other elements. In modern times, this is the most important wa
43、y of vocabulary expansion. 创建是指通过运用现有的材料，即词根，词缀和其它形式创建新词。这是词汇词汇扩展的最重要的形式。 Semantic change means an old form which takes on a new meaning to meet the new need. This does not increase the number of word forms but create many more new usages of the words, thus enriching the vocabulary. 旧词新义是指给予旧有新词新的含义
44、以满意新的须要。这一方式不增加词得数量，但却创建了词的很多新用法，以丰富词汇。 5 Borrowing has played a vital role in the development of vocabulary, particularly in earlier times. Borrowed words constitute merely six to seven percent of all new worlds. In earlier stages of English, French, Greek and Scandinavian were the major contributo
45、rs.借词在词汇的开展中起了重要的作用，尤其是在早期。借词在全部新词中，借词只占 6%。英语在早期阶段主要是向法语、拉丁语、希腊语和斯堪的纳维亚语借词。 Reviving archaic or obsolete words(复活古词和废弃词) also contributes to the growth of English vocabulary though quite insignificant. 复活古词和废弃词对整个英语词汇来说虽然影响不大，但却是是一种开展方式。 Chapter 3 1 - These different forms occur owing to different
46、sound environment. These minimal meaningful units are known as morphemes. In other words, the morpheme is the smallest functioning unit in the composition of words 1 在不同的发音环境下以不同形式出现。这些最小的有意义单位称为词素。 换言之，词素是“构词中最小功能单位” 2 - Morphemes are abstract units, which are realized in speech by discrete units k
47、nown as morphs. They are actual spoken, minimal carriers of meaning. The morpheme is to the morph what a phoneme is to a phone. 2 -词素（形位）是抽象的单位，是由分立的形素在话语中详细实现的。“形素”是实际说出来的最小的意 义携带体形位及形素的关系同音位及因素的关系一样。 3 - These morphemes coincide with words as they can stand by themselves and function freely in a s
48、entence. Words of this kind are called monomorphemic words. 3 -这些词素及词一样，因为它们在句子中可以独立起作用，这类词叫单语素词。 4 - Some morphemes, however, are realized by more than one morph according to their position in a word. Such alternative morphs are known as allomorphs. 4 -有些词素根据它们在词中的位置不同可有一个以上的不同形素实现，这些不同的形素叫词素变体。 5
49、- There are cases where the allomorphs of the plural morpheme are realized by the change of an internal vowel or by zero morph. 5 名词复数词素的变体也有一些特殊状况，可以通过变更内部元音来实现名词复数。 6 - Free Morphemes which are independent of other morphemes are considered to be free. These morphemes have complete meanings in themselves and can be used as free grammatical units in sentences. They are identical with root words, as each of them consists of a single free root, we might as well say that free morphemes are free roo