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1、Chapter 7CommunicationChapter OverviewReduced to its essence, negotiation is a form of interpersonal communication. Communication processes, both verbal and nonverbal, are critical to achieving negotiation goals and resolving conflicts.In this chapter we examine the process by which negotiators comm
2、unicate their own interests, positions, and goals-and in turn make sense of those of the other party and of the negotiation as a whole. This chapter opens with a discussion of the basic mechanisms through which messages are encoded, sent, received, and decoded. We then will consider in some depth wh
3、at is communicated in a negotiation, followed by an exploration of how people communicate in negotiation. The chapter concludes with discussions of how to improve communication in negotiation and of special communication considerations at the close of negotiations.Learning Objectives1. Understand th
4、e basic components of communication flow in a negotiation.2. Explore what is communicated in a negotiation and how people communicate.3. Consider the ways that communication might be improved in negotiation.4. Gain practical tools for how to improve communication processes in any negotiation.o The u
5、se of a particular channel shapes both perceptions of the communication task at hand and norms regarding appropriate behavior. Accordingly, channel variations have potentially important effects on negotiation processes and outcomes. For our purposes, the key variation that distinguishes one communic
6、ation channel from another is social bandwidth - the ability of a channel to carry and convey subtle social and relational cues from sender to receiver that go beyond the literal message, o Greater social bandwidth means a channel can convey more cues.o In written communication, there are only the w
7、ords and symbols on paper, although choice of words and the way they are arranged can convey tone, (in)formality, and emotion. Email is just a form of written communication - with some important distinctions.o People treat email as informal (complete with emoticons) and feel comfortable sending unpo
8、lished messages where they would never send such careless communication on paper.o The lack of social cues lowers inhibition and leads to more aggressive communication, such as flaming - hostile or insulting communication. Researchers have examined the effects of channels in general, and email in pa
9、rticular, on negotiation processes and outcomes - with few consistent findings.o It is clear that parties can more easily develop personal rapport in face-to-face communication compared to other channels.o And that face-to-face negotiators are more inclined to disclose information truthfully, increa
10、sing their ability to attain mutual gain.o There is evidence that negotiation through written channels is more likely to end in impasse than negotiation that occurs face-to-face or by phone. Developing rapport and sharing information truthfully are aspects of face-to-face communication that promote
11、cooperation, but face-to-face interaction may also enhance toughness in negotiation.o With face-to-face access, hard bargainers can communicate their “tough” message unambiguously, which in turn limits the other partys aspirations and triggers concessions. Using email communication can have the effe
12、ct of masking or reducing power differences between negotiators.o This may level the playing field” by giving less interpersonally skilled parties improve their performance, especially when the alternative is negotiating spontaneously with a more accomplished other party.o While reviewability is an
13、asset, there are a couple of drawbacks. First, negotiating in writing online gives parties an excuse to be less prepared, given time lags in which you can reflect on prior statements and contemplate future strategies. Second, negotiating in writing, as in email, is inevitably challenging for people
14、who dont like writing or dont write very well. The typing task may motivate negotiators to move too rapidly toward closure. Some research has explored reasons email negotiations sometimes end in impasse.o Not surprisingly, reaching agreements with email becomes more difficult as the number of partie
15、s involved increases, with very high impasse rates in a four-party negotiation simulation via email, with participants expressing high levels of dissatisfaction afterward. Negotiators using e-mail need to work harder at building personal rapport with the other party if they are to overcome limitatio
16、ns of the channel that would otherwise inhibit optimal agreements or fuel impasse.o What these negotiation channels lack is schmoozing - off-task or relationship- focused conversations often present in face-to-face negotiations.o Negotiators who schmoozed on the phone prior to email negotiations rea
17、ched more negotiated agreements, achieved better outcomes, and perceived greater trust and optimism regarding future working relationships with the other party. Expanding on this notion that using virtual channels effectively is key, researchers coined the term medium management to describe how nego
18、tiators may or may not use a virtual channel like email to best effect.o Reactive medium managers were less successful than proactive medium managers. Although early research focused on email, text messaging has become so common it merits separate attention as a communication channel in negotiation.
19、o Email is considered a “slow-tempo” medium, while IM and texting are a fast- tempo” medium more closely approximating oral communication.o Complex arguments benefit from “quick mediums but not in the “slow” mediumsIn summary, negotiations via email and other technology mediated channels create oppo
20、rtunities but also pose crucial challenges that negotiators would do well to understand before selecting a particular medium for an important occasion.o The communication orientation model suggests the effects of using different communication channels depend on the preexisting cooperative versus com
21、petitive mindset of the parties. In Chapter 6, we discussed various cognitive biases that interfere with rational decision making by negotiators.o Similarly, there are four biases that can threaten online negotiations.Temporal synchrony biasThis is the tendency for negotiators to behave as if they w
22、ere in a synchronous situation when they are not. Face-to-face interactions allow a “volley of offers but the pace of email may be annoying to one or both parties, negatively affecting both the negotiation relationship and outcomes.Burned bridge biasThe tendency to employ risky behavior during email
23、 negotiations that would not be used during a face-to-face encounter. Negotiators may be more willing to challenge the other party, set ultimatums, or react negatively to an offer. Emairs inherent structure makes it more likely that disputes will escalate compared to face-to-face or telephone intera
24、ction.Squeaky wheel bias This is the tendency for email negotiators to use a negative emotional style to achieve their goalsIf social norms of civility are absent, negotiators may resort to intimidation, rude behavior, and poor etiquette to achieve outcomes. In contrast, when negotiators are part of
25、 a cohesive social group, social norms are reinforced, which may moderate the incivility that can result from use of virtual communication channels.Sinister attribution biasThis occurs when negotiators mistakenly assume the others behavior is caused by personality flaws, while overlooking the role o
26、f situational factors - leading to poorer outcomes. Creating a positive rapport with a negotiation partner, either face-to-face or over the phone, can help to combat these biases.o It may not be possible for face-to-face interaction, so it is important to find ways to create a context of accountabil
27、ity for your actions. One option is to schmooze prior to negotiating. Another is involving a neutral third party in the exchange. See Box 7.3 for a list of additional ways to maximize effectiveness when negotiations occur in virtual environments.IV. How to Improve Communication in NegotiationFailure
28、s and distortions in perception, cognition, and communication are the main contributors to breakdowns and failures in negotiation.o Research cannot confirm this as the processes of perception, cognition, and communication are so intertwined with other major factors. Three main techniques are availab
29、le for improving communication in negotiation: the use of questions, listening, and role reversal.A. The Use of Questions The use of questions aids in clarifying communication and eliminating noise and distortion.o Asking good questions enables negotiators to secure a great deal of information about
30、 the other partys position, supporting arguments, and needs.o As a caution, questions alone cannot overcome negotiators9 information-gathering challenges. Questions can be sidesteppedThe other can mislead through dishonesty The other party may be unable to provide articulate answers because they are
31、 not totally aware of their own biases and emotions. Questions could be divided into two basic categories:o Those that are manageableo Those that are unmanageable and cause difficulties - See Table 7.2. Manageable questions cause attention or prepare the other persons thinking for further questions
32、- May I ask you a question? They can get information - How much will this cost? And generate thoughts - Do you have any suggestions for improvement? Unmanageable question cause difficultyThey give information - Didnt you know that we couldnt afford this? And bring discussion to a false conclusion -
33、Dont you think weve talked about this enough?o As you can see in Table 7.2, many unmanageable questions are likely to elicit defensiveness and anger. Negotiators can also use questions to manage difficult or stalled negotiations.o Several examples of tough situations and possible specific questions
34、that can be used to deal with them are listed in Table 7.3.o Another good way to unblock negotiations is to use “why not” questions instead of “why” questions.B. ListeningThere are three major forms of listening.o Passive listening involves receiving the message while providing no feedback to the se
35、nder about the accuracy or completeness of reception. A negotiator with a talkative counterparty may find that the best strategy is to sit and listen while the other party eventually works into, or out of, a position on their own.o Acknowledgment is slightly more active - when acknowledging the mess
36、age, receivers occasionally nod their heads, maintain eye contact, or inteiject responses like “I see J or interesting/5A sender may misinterpret the responses as agreement, rather than as simple acknowledgments of receipt of the message.o Active listening occurs when receivers restate or paraphrase
37、 the senders message in their own language. Successful reflective responding is a critical part of active listening and has these elements: A greater emphasis on listening than on speakingResponding to personal rather than abstract points Following the other rather than leading them into areas the l
38、istener thinks should be exploredClarifying what the speaker said about their own thoughts rather than questioning or suggesting what they should be thinking Responding to the feelings the other has expressed The value of active listening in negotiation might not seem obvious as the listener normall
39、y has a set position and may feel strongly about the issues. Active listening is a skill that encourages others to speak more fully about their feelings, priorities, frames of reference, and, by extension, the positions they are taking.C. Role Reversal Arguing consistently for one position can imped
40、e negotiators from recognizing the possible compatibility between both positions.o Active listening is a passive process but role-reversal techniques allow a more complete understanding of the others positions. There are two implications for negotiators.o The party attempting role reversal may come
41、to a greater understanding of the other partys position, which in turn can lead to convergence between negotiators9 positions.o While role reversal can produce these changes when the parties positions are fundamentally compatible, the technique may end up sharpening perceptions of differences if the
42、 positions are fundamentally incompatible. In sum, role reversal can be a useful tool for improving communication and the accurate understanding of the other partys position but does not necessarily lead to easy resolution of the conflict.V. Special Communication Considerations at the Close of Negot
43、iations As negotiations move toward a close, negotiators must attend to two key aspects of communication and negotiation simultaneously: the avoidance of fatal mistakes and the achievement of satisfactory closure in a constructive manner.A. Avoiding Fatal Mistakes Some specific advice about communic
44、ation near the end of a negotiation:o Know when to shut up - to avoid surrendering important information needlessly, and to refrain from making dumb remarks that push the other party away from agreement.o The other side is to recognize the other partys dumb remarks and do not respond or be distracte
45、d by them.o Watch out for last-minute problems, such as nit-picking or second-guessing by parties not involved in the bargaining process but with the right to review it.o Reduce the agreement to written form - the party who writes the contract is in a position to achieve clarity of purpose and condu
46、ct for the deal.B. Achieving Closure This generally involves making decision to accept offers, to compromise priorities, to trade off across issues with the other party, or to take some combination of these steps, o Such decision-making processes can be divided into four key elements: framing, gathe
47、ring intelligence, coming to conclusions, and learning from feedback. The first three we discussed elsewhere - the last, that of learning, or failing to learn, from feedback is largely a communication issue. This involves keeping track of what you expected would happen, systematically guarding again
48、st self-serving expectations, and making sure you review the lessons your feedback has provided the next time a similar decision comes along.o Many of the decision traps and biases discussed in Chapter 6 may arise at the end of negotiations, when parties are in a hurry to wrap up loose ends and ceme
49、nt a deal.Chapter SummaryIn this chapter we have considered elements of the art and science of communication that are relevant to understanding negotiations. We began with models that show communication as prone to error and distortion. Such distortions are more likely to occur when communicating parties have c