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1、Chapter 9InfluenceChapter OverviewIn Chapter 8, we discussed power as the potential to alter others attitudes and behaviors. In this chapter we turn to powers complement, influence-the actual strategies and messages that individuals deploy to bring about desired attitudinal or behavioral change. Dur
2、ing negotiations, actors frequently need to convince the other party that they have offered something of value, their offer is reasonable, and they cannot offer more. Negotiators may also want to alter the other partys beliefs about the importance of their own objectives and convince them that their
3、 concessions are not as valuable as believed. Negotiators may portray themselves as likable people who should be treated decently. All these efforts are designed to use information, as well as the qualities of the sender and receiver of that information, to adjust the other partys positions, percept
4、ions, and opinions; we call this group of tactics influence.The pursuit of influence certainly can stem from and capitalize on power in the sense that if you have leverage over someone because of your position of authority or your ability to confer rewards, you can use those things to influence - to
5、 get the other person to see or do something your way. But it is crucial to emphasize at the outset of this chapter that achieving successful influence does not necessarily require having power over the individuals) you seek to influence. As we shall see, there are multiple routes to influencing som
6、eone elses attitudes or behavior, some of which benefit from having formal or informal power over the target of influence, but many of which do not.People differ widely in their ability to use influence effectively. Some believe the ability to persuade is something with which people are born - you e
7、ither have it or you dontAlthough the natural persuasive abilities of people do differ, persuasion is as much a science as a native ability; everyone has the opportunity to get better at it. Our aim in this chapter is to discuss a variety of influence tools that are available to the savvy negotiator
8、. To set the stage, we begin with an organizing framework that defines influence seeking in two broad categories that correspond to two different social - psychological avenues for achieving influence.Learning Objectives1. Understand the principles of successful influence that are relevant to negoti
9、ation.2. Explore the dynamics of the two routes to successful influence.3. Consider the various influence tools and techniques that are available through each of the routes.4. Gain a broader understanding of the variety of influence tools available to any negotiator.o When topics are familiar, inter
10、esting, or controversial, the important points should be made early, exposing the receiver to the primacy effect. The first item in a long list of items is the one most likely to be remembered.o In contrast, when the topic is uninteresting, unfamiliar, or not very important to the receiver, the most
11、 critical point should be placed at the end of the message to take advantage of the recency effect. The tendency for the last item presented to be the best remembered.Formato Certain arguments or appeals may be more or less effective depending on the channel in use or the format of the presentation.
12、o One way choice of message format can induce peripheral influence is bytriggering a snap judgment regarding the legitimacy of the argument. Written rules tend to carry more weight than verbal ones, for example.Distractionso People start to defend themselves against being influenced as soon as they
13、suspect that someone is trying to persuade them. As they listen, part of their attention is devoted to what is being said, but a large portion is also devoted to developing counterarguments. Persuasion efforts are more effective if you can reduce the other partys efforts to develop counterarguments.
14、 One way is to have a distraction occur at the same time the message is sent. Distractions absorb the effort the other party would put into building counterarguments and leave them vulnerable to the message appeals. Distractions seem to inhibit the receivers subvocalization - what they say to themse
15、lves as they hear the message. Sometimes subvocalizations are counterarguments, but they can supportive as well.8. Source Characteristics That Foster Peripheral InfluenceSomeone who is not paying close attention to the message may be unduly influenced by the characteristics of the person or organiza
16、tion delivering the message. A wide variety of source effects can have an effect on the recipient of a persuasive message. We group them here into three broad categories: credibility, attractiveness, and authority.Source Credibilityo During negotiation, both parties exchange information, opinions, a
17、nd interpretations - What, and how much, should be believed? On one hand, there are strong incentives for negotiators to mislead each other. On the other hands, negotiators must accept and believe at least some of the information they are given, or successful negotiation is impossible.o Many factors
18、 contribute to source credibility. Here, we discuss several that negotiators can control, beginning with the most important ones: qualifications, trustworthiness, and self-presentation.1. Qualifications and ExpertiseThe stronger the persons perceived qualifications and expertise, the higher the cred
19、ibility. Judgments about qualifications can substitute for judgments about the quality of the argumentso That is what makes source credibility a peripheral route to influence. Expertise can be established in a number of ways, such as your occupation, education, or past experiences.o In situations wh
20、ere you are unknown or apt to be viewed stereotypically, it is worth the extra effort to establish qualifications and expertise.2. Reputation for Trustworthiness and IntegrityIntegrity is character - the personal values and ethics grounding your behavior in high moral principles.o Your integrity ass
21、ures people you can be trusted, honest, and abide by an agreements terms and follow through with it. Conversely, people with a reputation for being dishonest or insincere have a difficult time in negotiations - they are not believed, even when being truthful.o A poor reputation overshadows expertise
22、.o A reputation for being dishonest is very difficult to overcome. It is critical for negotiators to consider the long-term consequences of their behavior if they are to be trusted by others.3. Self-PresentationPeople appear more or less credible because of their presence一the way they present themse
23、lves to others. Communicators can create a favorable presence in several ways.o How you dress, speak, and behave influence credibility.o It is best to be “normal J meaning to act appropriately, naturally, and without affectation.4. Status DifferencesStatus is signaled by a variety of criteria: occup
24、ation, age, education, where you live, dress, type of car, and the like. Status confers credibility, which in turn can make someone influential by giving them visibility and prestige. A status difference may increase resistance so a persuader must decide whether to enforce a status difference or min
25、imize the difference.5. Intention to PersuadeThe more a person detects a negotiators mission is to influence their views, the more suspicious and resistant they may become. Many skillful negotiators may assume a mild-mannered demeanor to minimize the negative impact of a hard persuasive style.6. Ass
26、ociates Whom you associate with also can influence how you are perceived, in terms of both status and expertise.7. Persistence and Tenacity The effective use of persistence doesnt mean pursuing your goals blindly and rigidly because you can be effectively rebuffed o Instead, it means displaying crea
27、tivity in finding new ways to pursue the objective.o Persistence can help enhance a sources credibility to the extent that the target of the message isnt annoyed by that persistence.o But rather sees it as a sign that the communicator is dedicated and tenacious.o Box 9.1 presents an intriguing examp
28、le of how hearing something repeatedly leads people to assume it must come from a credible source.Source Attractivenesso People are more likely to respond positively to persuaders they like than to those they dont.o Personal attractiveness may increase persuasiveness for a number of reasons. People
29、may let their guard down and trust attractive people more readily. Attractive people may receive attention, or they may cause others to imitate them.o Personal attractiveness increases liking.o An individual can enhance their personal attractiveness to a target of influence or a negotiating opponent
30、 in several ways.1. FriendlinessWarmth, empathy, and personal interest in others all help to soften the harder edges of some of other influence tactics. Successful negotiators use friendliness to make the other party feel comfortable and at ease. Requests are more favorably received when preceded by
31、 informal dialogue.2. IngratiationIngratiation involves enhancing the others self-image or reputation through statements or actions, and thus enhancing your own image. Compliments work as an influence tactic as people like to receive them but also the norm of reciprocity leaves the other party oblig
32、ated to return something for the compliment. Ingratiation is often used, but if used poorly, it can backfire. Excessive or incorrect compliments make the receiver wary.3. LikabilityIf you like the communicator, you are more likely to be persuaded by them and less likely to protest a weak argument. H
33、owever, research shows that likeability is less important than other credibility factors, such as expertise. The effects of liking principle are insidious and occur through many approaches - defending against them all is impossible. Separating liking the other party from an evaluation of the deal sh
34、ould be enough to moderate the influence of the liking principle in your negotiation.4. Helping the Other Party There are many ways one party can help the other party in a negotiation: By doing a favor, allowing extra time, providing confidential information, complying with a request, or helping wit
35、h a constituency. Negotiators can help the other party avoid being caught by surprise.5. Perceived SimilarityThe more similarities people find between one another, the more bonds they establish, the better both parties feel, and the more receptive they will be to each other9s messages and efforts at
36、 persuasion. A useful negotiating tactic is to identify and discuss experiences, characteristics, and opinions you hold in common with the other party.6. EmotionEmotion combined with persistence leads to assertiveness and determination. Used effectively, emotion may enhance a message sources attract
37、iveness by instilling in listeners the belief that the speaker holds appealing deep- seated values. An important aspect of the role of emotion in influence and negotiation is being aware of the other partys emotions. Be careful not to assume that your arguments will be better received if your target
38、 is in a good mood.Authorityo The principle of authority is quite simple: People with authority have more influence than those without authority.o In negotiation, the principle of authority can be used in many ways. The use of a title, such as doctor or professor, gives the user more authority and t
39、hus more influence. Authority is more than position; it can further lead to attributions of expertise, o Researchers have distinguished between two broad uses of authority in influenceseeking. Authority based on ones personal expertise or credibility. Authority based on a persons legitimate position
40、 in an existing social hierarchy. The first form - expertise - has been labeled a soft influence tactic, and the second form - position - is a “harsh“ tactic.o The following is offered as advice for dealing with authority figures who may have influence over you. Ask two questions: Is this authority
41、truly an expert? and How truthful can I expect this expert to be?” The first question invites you to verify the person really does have expertise in the situation and not just the appearance of expertise. The second brings into focus the motive of the alleged authority.C. Aspects of Context That Fos
42、ter Peripheral InfluenceFinally, we explore aspects of the situation beyond the message itself and the sender of the message that create opportunities to pursue the peripheral route to influence. Five strategies are discussed: reciprocity, commitment, social proof, scarcity, and reward and punishmen
43、t.Reciprocityo The norm of reciprocity suggests that when you receive something from another person, you should respond in the future with a favor in return. The reciprocity norm is thought to be pan-cultural in that groups around the world appear to respect it.o The norm of reciprocity plays an imp
44、ortant role in negotiations. Negotiators give concessions and expect concessions in return.o A negotiator can counter the effects of the norm of reciprocity by refusing all favors in a negotiation setting, though it may cause more problems than it resolves.o So how should the negotiator respond? Res
45、pond politely to a favor and accept what is offered if it is something you want. If it is apparent the favor is an attempt at manipulation, then you should redefine the event as a trick rather than a favor. This removes the obligation of the rule of reciprocity.Commitmento Once people have decided s
46、omething, they can be remarkably persistent in their beliefs. This process has been labeled commitment to a position, and it relies heavily on the common need that people have to appear consistent, both to themselves and to others. See Box 9.2 for a cautionary tale involving commitment to the purcha
47、se of a car.o Commitment strategies are very powerful devices for making people comply. One way to increase commitment is to write things down. Researchers call this the foot-in-the-door techniqueo Commitment in a negotiation is usually incremental. Agreement to innocuous statements early in the neg
48、otiation may be used as a foundation for further and further concessions.o Commitment strategies are difficult to combat. Your body will send two types of warning signals when these techniques are in use. Either you will feel uncomfortable when subtle commitments are being madeOr something in the deal will just not seem quite right.Social Proofo The principle of social proof suggests that people look to others to determine the correct response in many situations. This principle suggests that people often behave in certain ways because everyone