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1、信用证案例分析程 军中国银行总行国际结算部总监ICC CHINA 信用证专家组成员Copyright2005 Cheng JunKEY ISSUE ONELC FRAUD(信用证欺诈问题)Copyright2005 Cheng JunLCFRAUDn 1、UCP中没有信用证欺诈的规定。n 2、UCP中也没有规定信用证欺诈的救济。n 3、寻求司法救济信用证欺诈例外原则。n 1)什么是信用证欺诈信用证欺诈的认定标准问题。n 2)信用证欺诈例外的例外问题。Copyright2005 Cheng JunLCFRAUDn 信用证欺诈例外原则n 是指在肯定信用证独立性原则的前提下,允许银行在存在信用证欺诈
2、的情况下,不予兑付,法院亦可以颁发止付令对银行的兑付行为予以禁止。n 三个理论基础n 欺诈使一切变得无效(frausomniacorrumpit)n 诚实信用原则 n 公共秩序保留原则 Copyright2005 Cheng JunLCFRAUDn 信用证欺诈认定的标准n 1、美国的标准n A)Pre-UCCPositionn B)PriorUCCArticle5Positionn C)RevisedUCCArticle5PositionCopyright2005 Cheng JunLCFRAUDn A)Pre-UCCPositionn TheSztejnCasen(1941年里程碑式的判例:
3、Sztejnv.J.HenrySchroderBankingCorp(31N.Y.S.2d631)n Intentionalfraud/egregiousfraud/amoreflexibleequitablestandardoffraudCopyright2005 Cheng JunLCFRAUDn B)PriorUCCArticle5Positionn 4-114(2)条:“除非另有协议,当各项单据表面符合信用证条款,但其中某项必要单据事实上不符合所有权凭证之流通或转让中的担保(warrantymadeonnegotiationortransferofadocumentoftitle)(第
4、7-507条)或保付证券之流通或转让中的担保(第8-306条)时,或某项必要单据属于伪造、带有欺诈或在交易中存在欺诈时,n a.开证人必须兑付汇票或支付命令,如果提出兑付要求的是议付银行;或是取得信用证项下之汇票或支付命令的其他执票人,只要该执票人取得汇票或支付命令的方式使其可以成为正当执票人(第3-302条),或在适当情况下,使其可以成为所有权凭证正常流通后的受让人(第7-502条)或保付证券的善意购买人(第8-302条);以及n b.在所有其他情况下,相对于客户来说,开证人只要善意作为,就可以兑付汇票或支付命令,即使客户已经发出通知,说明单据上存在欺诈、伪造或其他表面上不能显见的缺陷;但具
5、有适当管辖权的法院可以禁止此种兑付。”)Copyright2005 Cheng JunLCFRAUD判例中出现了大量不同的认定信用证欺诈的标准1)IntentionalFraudNMCEnterprisesIncv.ColumbiaBroadcastingSystemInc.(1974)14UCCRepServ1427)2)LetterofcreditfraudEmery-WaterhouseCov.RhodeIslandHospitalTrustNationalBank(1985)757F2d399)3)FlexibleStandardUnitedBankLtdv.CambridgeSpor
6、tingGoodsCorp(1976)392NYS2d265)Copyright2005 Cheng JunLCFRAUD4)ConstructivefraudDynamicsCorpofAmericav.Citizens&SouthernNationalBank(1973)356FSupp991)5)EgregiousFraud:GrossfraudIntraworldIndustriesIncv.GirardTrustBank(1975)336A2d316)Thecourtjudged:“thecircumstanceswhichwilljustifyaninjunctionagainst
7、honormustbenarrowlylimitedtosituationsoffraudwhichthewrongdoingofthebeneficiaryhassovitiatedtheentiretransactionthatthelegitimatedpurposesoftheindependenceoftheissuersobligationwouldnolongerbeserved”Copyright2005 Cheng JunLCFRAUDn C)RevisedUCCArt5PositionMaterialfraudn(5-109:a)如果一次交单在其表面上严格和信用证的条件和条
8、款相符,但是其中所要求的一个单据是伪造的或实质上是欺诈的(forgedormateriallyfraudulent),或者兑付该交付的单据将促成受益人对开证行和开证申请人的实质上的欺诈(facilitateamaterialfraud)一个凭善意行事的开证人,可以兑付也可不兑付交单b)如果一个开证申请人提出,该信用证所要求交单的单据是伪造的或实质上欺诈性的或兑付该单据将会实质上促成受益人对开证人和开证申请人的欺诈,那么一个法律上有合格管辖权的法院(competentcourt)可以临时或永久性地禁止开证人兑付某一提示,或者针对受益人或其他人采取其他相类似的补救方法。)Copyright2005
9、 Cheng JunLCFRAUDn OFFICALCOMMENTS:n“Theuseofthewordrequiresthatthefraudulentaspectofadocumentbematerialtoapurchaserofthatdocumentorthatthefraudulentactbematerialtotheparticipantsintheunderlyingtransaction.”n 一个通俗易懂的例子。Copyright2005 Cheng JunLCFRAUD对“materialfraud”的把握:对于单据中的欺诈而言,“实质性欺诈”达到令单据无效的严重程度,
10、破坏了其作为信用证交易所特定要求的本质;对于基础交易中的欺诈而言,受益人非根本性的违约一般不能被认为构成欺诈,只有受益人的行为严重违背包括基础合同在内的整个交易安排,导致对方的根本合同目的或主要目的已经落空时,才构成“实质性欺诈”。5-109及正式评论都没有明确规定要举证受益人的欺诈意图。Copyright2005 Cheng JunLCFRAUDCASESTUDIES:n Hyosung America,Inc.v.Sumagh Textile Co.n 信用证及基础合同中要求受益人出运“fabric with a 65%rayon/35%wool content”。n 受益人实际出运“fa
11、bric with a 70%rayon/30%wool content”,但提交的单据中却虚假地显示与信用证相同的货物且单据相符。n Q:Applicant是否可以欺诈为由向法院申请支付该笔信用证下的付款?Copyright2005 Cheng JunLCFRAUDn Under New York law,the essential elements of a common law fraud claim include:a.A material,false representation;b.Intent to defraud;c.Reasonable reliance on the rep
12、resentation;d.Causing damages to the plaintiff.Copyright2005 Cheng JunLCFRAUDn The beneficiary admitted that it had known that the fibre content of the goods shipped did not match the description of the goods stated in the presented documents.The beneficiary also knew that the issuing bank would be
13、liable to pay under the L/C if documents that appear on their face to comply with L/C terms were presented.Copyright2005 Cheng JunLCFRAUDn The court therefore concluded that the beneficiary had intended to defraud the issuer and that a 5%discrepancy in fabric content was material to the underlying s
14、ales transaction.n“misrepresentation was material because the issuer would not have honored the credit had the misrepresentation not been made.“Copyright2005 Cheng JunLCFRAUDn Western Surety Co.v.Bank of Southern Oregon n BankofSouthernOregon开立了两份以WesternSuretyCo.为受益人的备用信用证,用来反担保WesternSuretyCo.开出的两
15、份履约保函,该保函一份对应于Washington的工程,一份对应于Oregon的工程。但备用证中并未明确是对应于具体的工程。n 受益人在对应于Washington的工程的保函项下遭到索赔,却分别在两份备用证下提交汇票索款,开证人对对应于Oregon工程的备用证以受益人的实质性欺诈为由拒绝付款。Q:开证人的以实质性欺诈为由的抗辩能成立吗?Copyright2005 Cheng JunLCFRAUDCOURT:“First,thereisnoevidenceofarepresentationbythebeneficiary.Indeed,theonlyevidenceofrecordisthatt
16、hebeneficiarymerelypresentedtheBankwiththedraftsrequiredbytheletters.Further,assumingthatWesternsdraftsactedassomesortofrepresentation,thereisnoevidencethatitwasfalse.Thelettersofcreditareidenticalontheirface,exceptforthenumber,date,expirationdateandaggregateamount,andthereisnoindicationanywhereonth
17、emthattheywereforspecificconstructionprojects.Copyright2005 Cheng JunLCFRAUDCOURT:“toestablishaclaimforfraud,theBankhadtoshowthattherewasagenuineissueofmaterialfactastothefollowingelements:(1)arepresentation;(2)itsfalsity;(3)itsmateriality;(4)thespeakersknowledgeofitsfalsityorignoranceofitstruth;(5)
18、hisintentthatitshouldbeactedonbythepersonandinthemannerreasonablycontemplated;(6)thehearersignoranceofitsfalsity;(7)hisrelianceonitstruth;(8)hisrighttorelythereon;and(9)hisconsequentandproximateinjury.Copyright2005 Cheng JunLCFRAUDn 结论n 虽然UCC5(1995)确立了“materialfraud”的认定标准,但如何在具体案件中去把握则是取决于法官的自由裁量权。对
19、什么是“实质性欺诈”的判决仍有不同的判例产生。(Mid-AmericaTire,Inc.v.PTZTradingLtd.ImportandExportAgents)Copyright2005 Cheng JunLCFRAUDn 2、英国的标准英国因信用证欺诈而给予禁令救济的第一宗判例出现在1977年(EdwardOwenv.BarclaysBank)。英国一直对欺诈例外原则的适用有相当严格的限制。“Materialmisrepresentation”Copyright2005 Cheng JunLCFRAUDn CASESTUDYn UNITEDCITYMERCHANTS(INVESTMENT
20、S)LTD.v.ROYALBANKOFCANADA n 涉及倒签提单。货物实际于1976年12月16日装船,但提单显示的装运日期为12月15日(L/C要求的最迟装船日)。而该倒签行为是航运代理人瞒着受益人作出的,受益人并不知晓。n Q:是否可以以欺诈为由拒绝付款?Copyright2005 Cheng JunLCFRAUDn 一审法院:如果是卖方个人的欺诈行为或不道德行为去提交这样的倒签单据,银行应当根据“违反道德之对价不生诉权”的原则有权拒绝付款,但该案中的欺诈行为不在卖方,其在提交单据时也不知悉,因而卖方有权得到信用证下的偿付。Copyright2005 Cheng JunLCFRAUDn
21、 上诉法院推翻了一审判决:n 申请人给予银行的是对真实单据付款的授权,因而银行对伪造单据拒绝付款是再正当不过的了,第三方欺诈并不能成为受益人对欺诈例外原则适用的抗辩。n 风险分摊的角度n 银行担保权益角度 Copyright2005 Cheng JunLCFRAUDn 贵族院又推翻了上诉法院的判决,维持一审法院的判决:n 仍然强调由于是第三方欺诈,受益人并未参与,也不知悉该欺诈,不应对受益人适用欺诈例外原则。另外还认为,该带有虚假装船日期的提单并未完全失去法律效力,毕竟货物已经装运,提单持有人仍可以用以提货。Copyright2005 Cheng JunLCFRAUDn 学术界对该案的评论更多
22、的是批评:n Export Tradeby C.M.Schmitthoff:“The decision of the Court of Appeal represented sound commercial sense.”n Benjamins Sale of Goods:“It is disturbing that whilst a document stating the true loading date could have been rejected by the bank in the light of the doctrine of strict compliance,a doc
23、ument in which the loading date was fraudulently misrepresented by its maker constituted a valid tender in the beneficiarys hands.”n Bank Credits And Acceptancesby H.Harfield:Although it is not explicitly stated in every letter of credit that the documents should be genuine,it is logically and gener
24、ally recognized that there is an implied warranty by the beneficiary that documents tendered are genuine.Copyright2005 Cheng JunLCFRAUDn MontrodLtd.V.GrundkotterFleischvertrieds-Gmbh(2001)n 该案中卖方为信用证的受益人,而买方委托另一家公司作为申请人开立了信用证。为了能将信用证下的付款权控制在自己手中,以便在收到买方的货款后再在信用证下付款,开证申请人在信用证中要求受益人提交由其出具并签署的检验证。买方让卖方
25、信以为真地认为买方完全能够代表信用证申请人,包括申请人的签字,并特此给卖方寄去了申请人的公司章以示证明,并授权卖方的一名员工为申请人的有权签字人。于是受益人就让该员工签发检验证,并妥当地提交了与信用证表面相符的单据。当申请人发现检验证不是其出具并签署时,马上要求开证行拒绝付款。而此时买方已提了货,逃之夭夭。n Q:开证行是否应该在知悉该检验证无效时而拒绝付款?Copyright2005 Cheng JunLCFRAUDn Trial Court:n it was satisfied that the beneficiary did not know that the buyer had no
26、authority from the applicant to authorize the signature of the inspection certificates on the applicants behalf at the time of presentation of the documents.Therefore,the court concluded that the beneficiary had not acted dishonestly and that no fraud had been committed.n it found no support for the
27、 submission that there exists in parallel with the fraud exception a second exception covering documents which are nullities to the knowledge of the bank at the time of payment through the beneficiary is innocent of any deception”Copyright2005 Cheng JunLCFRAUDn Court of Appeal:n Beneficiarys present
28、ation of documents that its employees signed for the Applicant in the honest belief that the buyer rightfully authorized them to do so did not fall within the fraud exception,and English law did not recognize a separate nullity exception for documents honestly created and presented.Copyright2005 Che
29、ng JunLCFRAUDn 3、联合国独立担保和备用信用证公约(UNCITRALCONVENTION)的标准n Article 19.Exception to payment obligation 1)If it is manifest and clear that:(a)Any document is not genuine or has been falsified;(b)No payment is due on the basis asserted in the demand and the supporting documents;or(c)Judging by the type a
30、nd purpose of the undertaking,the demand has no conceivable basis,the guarantor/issuer,acting in good faith,has a right,as against the beneficiary,to withhold payment.Copyright2005 Cheng JunLCFRAUDn(2)For the purposes of subparagraph(c)of paragraph(1)of this article,the following are types of situat
31、ions in which a demand has no conceivable basis:(a)The contingency or risk against which the undertaking was designed to secure the beneficiary has undoubtedly not materialized;(b)The underlying obligation of the principal/applicant has been declared invalid by a court or arbitral tribunal,unless th
32、e undertaking indicates that such contingency falls within the risk to be covered by the undertaking;(c)The underlying obligation has undoubtedly been fulfilled to the satisfaction of the beneficiary;(d)Fulfilment of the underlying obligation has clearly been prevented by wilful misconduct of the be
33、neficiary;(e)In the case of a demand under a counter-guarantee,the beneficiary of the counter-guarantee has made payment in bad faith as guarantor/issuer of the undertaking to which the counter-guarantee relates.Copyright2005 Cheng JunLCFRAUDn 我国的最高人民法院关于审理信用证纠纷案件若干问题的规定n 第八条凡有下列情形之一的,应当认定存在信用证欺诈:(一
34、)受益人伪造单据或者提交记载内容虚假的单据;(二)受益人恶意不交付货物或者交付的货物无价值;(三)受益人和开证申请人或者其他第三方串通提交假单据,而没有真实的基础交易;(四)其他进行信用证欺诈的情形。Copyright2005 Cheng JunLCFRAUDn 几点值得注意:n 未强调欺诈的“实质性”n 但从(二)中也能够体现出“实质性欺诈”的标准n 明确了信用证欺诈的形式n“提交记载内容虚假的单据”标准太低?Copyright2005 Cheng JunLCFRAUDn 信用证欺诈例外豁免原则(信用证欺诈例外的例外原则)n 信用证欺诈例外的豁免的理论基础n 保护善意第三方n 风险分摊的角度
35、 n 在什么情况下,将适用信用证欺诈例外的豁免原则呢?Copyright2005 Cheng JunLCFRAUDn 必须符合四个条件:n 该第三方必须支付了对价n 该第三方必须要有开证行的授权去兑付或议付,或以自己的名义提交单据索款。n 该第三方必须在上述开证行的授权范围内行事。n 该第三方的行为必须是善意的。Copyright2005 Cheng JunLCFRAUDn 受欺诈例外的豁免原则保护的第三方n 1)保兑行n 保兑行如果仅仅作为保兑行,那么在其履行完独立于开证行的保兑责任,即兑付后将享有豁免权。Copyright2005 Cheng JunLCFRAUDn 2)被指定付款/议付/
36、延期付款/承兑行 n 被指定行必须在开证行的授权范围内行事,同时必须善意地支付对价,这样才能受到豁免权的保护。Copyright2005 Cheng JunLCFRAUDn 开证行的授权n 对于被指定议付行而言,开证行的授权为:议付根据UCP修订稿中的“HONOR”定义:n 对于被指定即期付款行而言,开证行的授权为:即期付款。n 对于被指定延期付款行而言,开证行的授权为:作出延期付款允诺并在到期日付款。n 对于被指定承兑行而言,开证行的授权为:承兑并在到期日付款。Copyright2005 Cheng JunLCFRAUDBancoSantanderv.BanqueParibas n 案情:n
37、 在提单日后180天的延期付款信用证下保兑行凭一份款项让渡书贴现了远期付款款项。贴现后一周,开证行通知受益人提交了伪造的单据并存在确凿的欺诈。在到期日,开证行以欺诈为由拒绝付款。n Q:保兑行能否享有欺诈例外豁免权?Copyright2005 Cheng JunLCFRAUDn 一审法院、上诉法院:n 在延期付款信用证下,开证行对被指定行的指定是被指定银行作出延期付款的允诺并在到期日付款,被指定银行仅仅作出延期付款的允诺只是执行了开证行指令的一半,此时不能得到开证行的偿付。开证行并未要求保兑行在到期日前贴现或支付任何对价,这只是保兑行自己的决定,尽管这样做也没有与指令相违背。如果保兑行没有在到
38、期日前贴现,当得知存在确凿欺诈时,完全可以在到期日以欺诈例外的抗辩来拒绝付款。Copyright2005 Cheng JunLCFRAUDn 该判决遭到众多信用证权威学者及评论家的质疑n JAMESE.BYRNE和JAMESG.BARNESn 美国法上判决结果会相反n FirstUnionNationalBankvArabAfricanInternationalBankandOthers2002(USA)中,FUNB(伦敦)与BancoSantander处于几乎完全相同的状态,因害怕受上述判例的影响,FUNB曾寻求美国法院的管辖,但未果。Copyright2005 Cheng JunLCFRA
39、UD可参看下列判例:n Banque Nationale de Paris v.Credit Agricole IndosuezBanque 2000-4 SLR 254(27 June 2000)Singapore;Credit Agricole Indosuez v.Banque Nationale de Paris Court of Appeal,2001-2 SLR 1 Singapore n Bank of Joliet v.Firstar Bank Milwaukee,N.A.A.No.96 C 1145,1997 U.S.Dist.LEXIS 15384(N.D.Ill.26 S
40、eptember 1997);n Industrial Bank of Korea v.BNP Paribas 2001 DA 68266(Supreme Court,2nd Div.2003)Korea n Federal Bank Ltd.v.VM Jog Engineering Ltd.2002 4 LRI 204(Sup.Ct.of India)India n United City v.Punjab Bank(1982)V2 LloydS Rep.4法院一致观点:被指定议付行在不参与信用证欺诈或不知晓信用证欺诈的情况下,其对开证行的索偿权不受信用证欺诈例外抗辩的影响。Copyrigh
41、t2005 Cheng JunLCFRAUDn 3)正当持票人(HoldersinDueCourse)n 只有在信用证要求提交远期汇票,且在开证行作为该汇票的承兑人作出承兑时,该汇票的正当持票人才能享受开证行欺诈例外的豁免权。Copyright2005 Cheng JunLCFRAUDn 注意两点:n 1)该汇票必须是在票据法上合格的流通票据。n 美国判例Regent Corp USA v Azmat Bangladesh,Ltd.n 2)汇票的受款人不能成为正当持票人。n 可参看Credit Agricole Indosuez v.Banque Nationale de Paris Cour
42、t of Appeal,2001-2 SLR 1 SingaporeRE Jones Ltd.V.Waring and Gillow Ltd.(1926)AC 670.Copyright2005 Cheng JunLCFRAUDn 4)转让证下的第二受益人n 在转让证下,如果由于第一受益人实施了欺诈,第二受益人的索款权应得到欺诈例外抗辩的豁免。n Cromwellv.Commerce&EnergyBank(1984)450So2d1,affdinpart,revdinpart(1985)464So2d)Copyright2005 Cheng JunKEYISSUETWONEGOTIATION议
43、 付MISSION IMPOSSIBLE?Copyright2005 Cheng JunNEGOTIATION议付的定义?n UCP500n POSITION PAPER NO.2Copyright2005 Cheng JunNEGOTIATION什么是“undertakinganobligationtomakepayment”承担付款责任?n 加拿大信用证专家李道安的观点n GARYCOLLYER的观点n 冯敬德律师的观点n RABOBANKvBANKOFCHINACopyright2005 Cheng JunNEGOTIATIONUCP中“对价”概念的法律基础英美法中的“对价”概念n 英美
44、合同法中的对价概念n 英美票据法中的对价概念Copyright2005 Cheng JunNEGOTIATIONn 不可撤销的允诺符合英美法中的对价概念,这正是“承担付款责任”的渊源。Copyright2005 Cheng JunNEGOTIATIONUCP600n 修订组在对DRAFT2的评论中提到:“Negotiationisamethodoffinance.”议付的本质特性一种融资行为。而所谓融资必然是提前支付”ADVANCETOPAY”,也只有提前支付才会给被指定议付行带来风险,形成损害(detriment),才构成对价。Copyright2005 Cheng JunNEGOTIATI
45、ONDRAFT 2中的议付定义:n 在单据相符时,被指定行对受益人提交的汇票及/或单据的付款或付款责任。n 回避了“支付对价”的概念。Copyright2005 Cheng JunNEGOTIATIONDRAFT3中的议付定义:n 议付被分为动词形式(negotiate)和名词形式(negotiation)来分别定义如下:n“negotiate”是指被指定行与受益人间根据约定条款进行议付的行为。如果该被指定行是保兑行,那么它对受益人的议付没有追索权。n“negotiation”是指议付信用证下,被指定行以预付款项或同意预付款项给受益人的方式对汇票(该汇票的受票行不是被指定行)及/或单据的买入。
46、仅仅审核单据不构成议付。Copyright2005 Cheng JunNEGOTIATIONn 引入了“PURCHASE”概念n 但“Purchase”和“givingofvalue”相比是否更好呢?n 定义中将“Purchase”的方式特定为“预付款”和“同意预付款”“Advancingfunds”and“Agreeingtoadvancefunds”Copyright2005 Cheng JunNEGOTIATION问题:1、“AGREEING”的具体形式是什么?口头的还是书面的?可撤消的还是不可撤消的?显然简单地用“AGREEING”来表达不能诠释清楚究竟什么是另一种形式的议付。2、“A
47、GREEING TO ADVANCE FUNDS”后,被指定议付行是否已成为合格的议付行,从而享有欺诈例外抗辩的豁免权?Copyright2005 Cheng JunNEGOTIATIONDRAFT4中的议付定义:n 对“negotiate”和“negotiation”定义作了合并,同时将“ifthecreditisavailablebynegotiation”删除了,其他并无实质上的改动。n 产生的新问题:会带来在其他类型信用证下的对单据及或汇票的“purchase(买入)”也被视为议付。Copyright2005 Cheng JunNEGOTIATION一个期望:n 期望修订小组能推出一个
48、明确、确切、为各国银行委员会所接受的定义。一个态度:n 如果不能推出一个这样的定义,与其引发纠纷,不如将其删除。修订过程中有过要删除议付概念的声音。Copyright2005 Cheng JunNEGOTIATION不是办法的办法n 修订小组内唯一亚洲成员,新加坡信用证专家苏志成先生仍然倾向于删除议付概念,同时建议如果信用证当事方有融资需求,可在信用证内添加允许融资的授权条款,以期彻底解除议付问题。Copyright2005 Cheng JunNEGOTIATION个人的一个建议n 将原先定义中的“承担付款责任”改为“作出付款允诺并在该允诺到期日付款”,即作出允诺和在允诺到期日(在信用证兑付到
49、期日之前)付款两个行为方才构成议付。Copyright2005 Cheng JunNEGOTIATION信用证专家李道安先生的一句话:“Pleasedonttrytorideontheelephantnamednegotiation,wemayfallunlesswecanfly.”UCP600中的议付定义是否能给我们以飞翔的翅膀呢?我们翘首以待!Copyright2005 Cheng JunKEYISSUETHREESTANDARD FOR EXAMINATION OF DOCUMENTS(审单标准)Copyright2005 Cheng JunSTANDARDFOREXAMINATIONO
50、FDOCUMENTSn 1、UCP500第13条解析n 1)银行只审核信用证中规定的单据n Q:银行没有义务审核额外单据,但是否就意味着银行不可以去审核,哪怕在额外单据中出现重大不符之处时也不可以以此拒付呢?Copyright2005 Cheng JunSTANDARDFOREXAMINATIONOFDOCUMENTSn 美国信用证法律权威Dolan的观点n UCP500修订工作组主席CharlesdelBusto在ICC511中的解释n Gutteridge&MegrahsLawofBankersCommercialCredits一书中的观点Copyright2005 Cheng JunST