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1、 1.What is Language Acquisition?2.Contrastive analysis 3.Error analysis 4.Interlanguage 5.Comprehensible Input and L2 Acquisition 6.Individual factors affecting SLA第1页/共36页 1.What is language acquisition?thelearningandthedevelopmentofapersonslanguage.Itisstudiedbylinguists,psycholinguistsandappliedl
2、inguiststoenablethemtounderstandtheprocessesusedinlearningalanguage,helpidentifystagesinthedevelopmentalprocess,andtogiveabetterunderstandingofthenatureoflanguage.Itfocusesonthestudyofthedevelopmentofphonology,grammar,vocabularyandcommunicativecompetence.第2页/共36页 First language;Second language;Forei
3、gn language;Target language first language/L1:generallyapersonsmothertongueorthelanguageacquiredfirst,alsoknownasnativelanguage.second language/L2:alanguagewhichisnotanativelanguageinacountrybutwhichiswidelyusedasamediumofcommunicatione.g.ineducation&ingovernmentandwhichisusuallyusedalongsideanother
4、languageorlanguages.EnglishisdescribedasasecondlanguageincountriessuchasSingapore,CanadaandNigeria.第3页/共36页 foreign language:alanguagewhichistaughtasaschoolsubjectbutwhichisnotusedasamediumofinstructionnorasalanguageofcommunicationwithinacountrye.g.ingovernment,business,orindustry.Englishisdescribed
5、asaforeignlanguageinChina,Japan,Franceetc.target language:alanguagewhichapersonislearning.第4页/共36页 Second Language Acquisition(SLA)ThestudyofSLA,asanindependentfieldofinquiry,startedinthelate1960s,andflourishedinthe1970sand80s,perhapsasaresultoftheresurgenceofinterestintheinternalmechanismsofthelang
6、uageteachingandlearningprocess.第5页/共36页 2.Contrastive analysis/CAaproceduredesignedtofindoutthedifferencesandsimilaritiesbetweenlanguagesinordertohelpteachersandlearners,andnotproduceerrorsatall.Itwasdevelopedandpracticedinthe1950sand1960s.Itwasmoresuccessfulinphonologythaninotherareasoflanguage,and
7、declinedinthe1970sasinterferencewasreplacedbyotherexplanationsoflearningdifficulties.第6页/共36页 Role of L1 in L2 Acquisition:Language transfer:theeffectofonelanguageonthelearningofanother.Twotypesoflanguagetransfer:Negative transfer负迁移,alsoknownasinterference,theuseofanativelanguagepatternorrulewhichl
8、eadstoanerrororinappropriateforminthetargetlanguage.Negativetransfer-interfereorhindertargetlanguagelearning第7页/共36页 It is believed that differences between the nativelanguageandthetargetlanguagewouldposedifficulties in second/foreign language learning andteaching,e.g.*Totouchthesociety.*Therearemor
9、epeoplecometostudyinthestates.*Iwaityouatthegateoftheschool.第8页/共36页 Positive transfer:正迁移 transferwhichmakeslearningeasier,andmayoccurwhenboththenativelanguageandtargetlanguagehavethesameform.Positivetransfer-facilitatetargetlanguagelearninge.g.BothFrenchandEnglishhavethewordtable,whichcanhavethesa
10、memeaninginbothlanguages.第9页/共36页 3.Error analysisthestudyandanalysisoftheerrorsmadebysecondlanguagelearners.Itisdevelopedasabranchofappliedlinguisticsinthe1960s,andentereditsheydayinthe1970s.Itsetouttodemonstratethatmanylearnererrorswerenotduttothelearnersmothertonguebutreflecteduniversallearningst
11、rategies.Bythelate1970s,erroranalysishadalreadybeenreplacedbystudiesofinterlanguage语际语言andSecondLanguageAcquisition.第10页/共36页 Two types of errors:Intralingual语内errorsmainlyresultfromfaultyorpartiallearningofthetargetlanguage,independentofthenativelanguage.Intralingualerrorswereclassifiedinto:over-ge
12、neralization概括过头theuseofpreviouslyavailablestrategiesinnewsituations.学生以为自己已经知道某一语言规则，但实际上并非真正了解，或者是由于他们的直觉，甚至是在其他场合的一些交际策略第11页/共36页 e.g.walked,watched,washed *rided,*goed,*doed,*eatedJane advise me to give up smoking.Jane told me to give up smoking.*Jane hoped me to give up smoking.*Jane suggested
13、me to give up smoking.*Ilosedthegame.*Therearetensheeps.*Iwasdevotedtodothisjob.)第12页/共36页 Cross-association互相联想referstothephenomenonthatthecloseassociationofthetwosimilarwordsoftenleadstoconfusion,e.g.Other/another,much/many,Itmayalso occursatalllevelsoflanguagefromphonologicaltosyntactic,e.g.The c
14、offee is too hot to drink.*Theappleistoosourtoeatit.第13页/共36页 Interlingual 语际errorsresultfromlanguagetransfer,i.e.whichiscausedbythelearnersnativelanguage.e.g.*Someoneisknockingthedoor.*Myopiniondifferswithyours.*-Ishetired?-Tired.*Whatsyourname?MynameSmith.*Myfamilyhas5people.第14页/共36页 Interlingual
15、errorsmainlyresultfromcross-linguisticinterferenceatdifferentlevelssuchasphonological,lexical,grammaticalordiscoursaletc.Forexamples,a.Substitutionoftforanddfor:threetree,thisdis.b.Shorteningoflongvowels:sheepship,meetmit第15页/共36页 Error&mistakeAnerror isadeviation偏离onlearnerlanguagethatresultsfromla
16、ckofknowledgeofthecorrectruleandnotself-corrigiblebythelearner(failureincompetence)；Amistakeisadeviationinlearningalanguagethatoccurswhenthelearnerfailstoperformhiscompetencethatiscausedbyfatigue,inattention,carelessnessetc;eitherintentionallyorunintentionallyandself-corrigible(failureinperformance)
17、.第16页/共36页 4.Interlanguage 中介语(S.PitCorder&LarrySelinker)Interlangauge-learnersindependentsystemofthesecondlanguagewhichisofneitherthenativelanguagenorthesecondlanguage,butacontinuumorapproximationfromhisnativelanguagetothetargetlanguage.Whatlearnersproduce,correctorwrong,areevidenceortheapproximati
18、onfromtheirfirstlanguagetothetargetlanguage.第17页/共36页 Itconsistsofaseriesofoverlapping重叠grammar;eachonesharessomeruleswiththepreviouslyconstructedgrammar,butcontainsomeneworrevisedrules.CharacteristicsofinterlanguageInterlanguagehasthreeimportantcharacteristics:systematicity,permeabilityandfossiliza
19、tion.第18页/共36页 Fossilization僵化In secondorforeignlanguagelearning,aprocesswhichsometimesoccursinwhichincorrectlinguisticfeaturesbecomeapermanentpartofthewayapersonspeaksandwritesalanguage.Aspectsofpronunciation,vocabularyusage,andgrammarmaybecomefixedorfossilizedin secondorforeignlanguagelearning.Fos
20、silizedfeaturesofpronunciationcontributetoapersonsforeignaccent.第19页/共36页 5.Comprehensible Input and L2 Acquisition According to Krashens Input Hypothesis,in second or foreign language learning，learners acquire a language along the natural order by understanding input that contain structures a littl
21、e bit beyond their current level of competence;comprehensible input is necessary for acquisition to take place,but it is not sufficient.Learners also need to be willing to internalize the input they comprehend.第20页/共36页 美国南加州大学语言学系教授克拉申（Krashen）的输入假设理论认为：只要接受到足够的语言输入，而且这些输入又是可以理解的（comprehensive），人们就
22、可以习得语言。如果人们的语言水平为i，他们接触到大量含有i+1的语言输入，他们的语言水平就会从i向i+1提高。第21页/共36页 Two means of second language learning Acquisitionisaprocesssimilartothewaychildrenacquiretheirfirstlanguage,itisasubconsciousprocesswithoutminutelearningofgrammaticalrules.Learningisaconsciouslearningofthesecondlanguageknowledgebylearn
23、ingtherulesandtalkingabouttherules.第22页/共36页 Comprehensible Input:i+1irepresentslearnerscurrentstateofknowledge,thenextstageis i+1.Byprovidingcomprehensibleinputwhichisbithigherthanthelearnerscurrentlevel,thelearnersLanguageAcquisitionDevice/LAD语言习得机制willbeactivated激活andcontributetoacquisition.第23页/
24、共36页 Input,output,intakeInput:languagewhichalearnerhearsorreceivesandfromwhichapersoncanlearn.Thelanguagealearnerproducesisbyanalogycalledoutput.Intake吸收的语言isinputwhichisactuallyhelpfulforthelearner.Someofthelanguage(i.e.input)whichalearnerhearsmaybetoorapidordifficultforthelearnertounderstand,andth
25、ereforecantbeusedinlearning(i.e.cannotserveasintake).第24页/共36页 6.Individual factors affecting SLAAge of Acquisition:anearlyperiodofoneslifeuntiltheageofpuberty青春期,duringwhichlanguageacquisitionforallnormalchildrenisnatural,effortlessandsuccessful.Learning strategiesLanguage aptitude see Dai P169 第25
26、页/共36页 语言潜能（languageaptitude）定义:学习者所具备的某种能力倾向。包括：语音能力、语法能力、推理能力。Chomsky的语言能力（languagecompetence）：语言是天赋，语言能力即是一种语法能力，是一种普遍语法。从语言知识角度来看，婴儿学习母语是一个从无到有的过程（从普遍语法到个别语法的过程），而外语学习则是在具备了一套具体语言规则的基础上进行。已有的语言知识不可避免地成为学习外语的参照系，原有语言知识必然发生迁移。Hymes的交际能力(communicativecompetence)：语言使用者根据社会情景因素恰当运用语言规则的能力。从交际能力的角度来看，
27、婴儿学习母语是一个社会化的过程，是一个确定自己社会角色，接受社会规范和文化价值的过程，而对外语学习者来说，他的社会身份已经确定、语言中的指示转移规则已经掌握，外语交际涉及到了跨文化问题，语言规则和交际准则的矛盾凸现出来。第26页/共36页 Motivation学习动机动机属于情感因素之一。从教育心理学角度讲，学习过程中影响学习效果的最大因素之一就是学习者的情感控制。定义：所谓动机就是对某种活动有明确的目的性；为达到该目的而作出的一定努力。分类：综合型动机（integrativemotivation）：学习者对目的语社团有特殊兴趣，期望参与或融入该社团的社会生活。工具型动机（instrument
28、almotivation）：学习者为了某一特殊目的，如通过某一考试，获得某一职位等。态度态度的定义：（1）认知成分，即对某一目的的信念；（2）情感成分，即对某一目标的好恶程度；（3）意动成分：即对某一目标的行动意向及实际行动。第27页/共36页 动机和态度与外语习得之间关系研究达成的共识：（1）动机和态度是决定不同学习者取得不同程度成功的主要因素。（2）动机和态度的作用与能力的作用不是一回事。最成功的学习者是既有才华又有强烈学习动机的人。（3）有些情况下，综合型动机有助于成功掌握外语，有时工具型动机也可以。有时两种同时起作用。（4）动机类型与社会环境有关。(5）动机和态度主要影响外语习得速度，
29、对习得程序并无影响。第28页/共36页 Criticalperiodhypothesis关键期假说:thetheorythatinchilddevelopmentthereisaperiodduringwhichlanguagecanbeacquiredmoreeasilythanatanyothertime.AccordingtothebiologistLenneberg,thecriticalperiodlastsuntilpuberty(aroundage0f12or13years)andisduetobiologicaldevelopment.Lennebergsuggestedtha
30、tlanguagelearningmaybemoredifficultafterpubertybecausethebrainlackstheabilityforadaptation.This,hebelieves,wasbecausethelanguagefunctionsofthebrainhavealreadybeenestablishedinaparticularpartofthebrain.第29页/共36页 关键期假说（criticalperiodhypothesis）：儿童大脑有一个逐渐成熟、功能逐渐固化的过程。Lenneberg(1967)：通过“接触”（exposure）就能习
31、得任何语言的关键期是2岁至发育期（puberty）。有关年龄因素对外语习得影响：（1）关键期对外语学习的影响最主要的是体现在语音的精确度方面。（2）学习外语的起始年龄并不在很大程度上影响习得的程序；任何年龄开始学习一门外语都有可能成功。（3）学习外语的起始年龄较明显地影响习得的速度和效率。在语法、词义和词汇方面，少年比儿童和成人表现更为出色。（4）学习时间长短影响习得的成功程度。但起始年龄对于达到的精密程度起着关键作用，尤其在语音方面。第30页/共36页 Personality:thoseaspectsofanindividualsbehaviour,attitudes,beliefs,tho
32、ught.Actionandfeelingswhichareseenastypicalanddistinctiveofthatpersonandrecognizedassuchbythatpersonandothers.Twotypesofpersonality:extrovertandintrovert。Adultlearnerswhoareextrovertlearnmorequicklyandthereforemoresuccessfulthanintrovertones.对教师的启示：（1）顺其自然。针对不同学习任务在不同场合发挥各自优势；（2）通过某些手段，促使不同性格学习者向相反方
33、向作些转变，以适应各种不同学习环境和任务。第31页/共36页 Cognitive style:field-independent field-dependent.认知风格认知风格主要指人们接受、组织和检索信息的不同方式。类型：场依赖型：依照外部参照系处理有关信息；倾向于从整体上认知事物；缺乏主见；社会敏感性强，易与人沟通。场独立型：以自我为参照系统；倾向分析；具有独立性；社会交际能力弱。第32页/共36页 启示：（1）场依赖型在自然环境下学习外语更易成功，而在课堂教学中场独立型可能更占优势。（2）作为教师应了解学习者的不同认知风格，针对不同学习任务、不同学习环境，发挥其特长，并能相应地对学生的学习策略和认知风格加以引导。第33页/共36页 第34页/共36页 第35页/共36页感谢您的观看！第36页/共36页