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1、二语习得名词解释1. Motivation （动机）Motivation involves the attitudes and affective states that influence the degree of effort that learners make to learn a L2. Various kinds of motivation have been identified.2. Intake （吸收）that portion of the L2 which is assimilated and fed into the interlanguage system.3. F
2、oreigner talkForeigner talk: the language that native speakers use when addressing non-nativc speakers.4. Communication strategies:Learner techniques of compensating fbr limitations in their L2 linguistic resources, such as repairing misunderstanding or sustaining interpersonal interaction.5. Fossil
3、izationA stable state in SLA where L2 learners ccasc their IL development in some respects before they reach target language nonns, in spite of continuing L2 input and passage of time.6. Feedback: Infbnnation that is provided to learners about whether or not their production and interpretation of la
4、nguage is appropriate.7. The L2=LI hypothesisThe above studies （morpheme order studies, negation, interrogation and relative clauses） are all evidences fbr L2=L1 hypothesis, under which, SLA is characterized by a natural route of development and this route of development is common to both LI acquisi
5、tion and SLA.8. Interaction: the discourse jointly constructed by learner and his interlocutors.9. Cognitive style is a term used to refer to the manner in which people perceive, conceptualize, organize, and recall information.10. The natural order hypothesisThis hypothesis claims that there is a pr
6、edictable, natural order fbr the acquisition of grammatical structures in a second language, irrespective of age differences and language backgrounds of acquirers.11. Critical period hypothesisThe theory that there is a period when language acquisition takes place naturally and effortlessly.12. Apti
7、tude （倾向）The natural ability to learn a language, not including intelligence, motivation, interest, etc.Language aptitude is thought to be a combination of various abilities, such as the ability to identify sound patterns in a new language, the ability to recognize the difterent grammatical function
8、s of words in sentences, ROTE-LEARNING ability, and the ability to infer language nilcs.HomeworkWork with your team members to draw a table showing the differences between CA and EA.Chapter 4 Interlanguage (p 40-43)Lead-in questions:1. As an English learner, how does your English differ from that of
9、 native speakers?2. Can L2 learners achieve native-proficiency?OutlineThe background theory3.1 Definition of interlanguageCharacteristics of IL3.2 FossilizationBackground theoryMentalist accounts of first language acquisition (P43)ChomskyUG, innate theoryChomskyUniversal GrammarIncompleteUngrammatic
10、al Languagee rr. .acquisitionSimplifiedl . device-LADFinite(UG) (input-stimulus)UkInput asa trigger for 工 activating LADNurture NatureMentalist views of LI acquisition1. Language is a human-specific faculty.2. Language exists as an independent faculty in human mind- and provides the child with UG.3.
11、 Input is needed, but only to “trigger“ the operation of LAD.4. The process of acquisition consists of hypothesis-testing.Infinite grammatical sentences (output-response)-LAD, which is genetically endowedBlack BoxDefinition of interlanguageLarry Salinker (1972) introduced the term Interlanguage (IL)
12、 to refer to the intennediate states or interim grammars of a learners language as it moves toward the target L2.Native language(LI)InterlanguageTarget language(L2)Characteristics of ILSystematic: IL is rule-governed.Dynamic: The L2 learners interlanguage is constantly changing.Variable:Differences
13、in context result in different patterns of language use.Reduces system both in form and function.4.1 FossilizationSclinkcr (1972) suggests that the most important distinguishing factor related to L2 acquisition is the phenomenon of fossilization (僵化).Fossilization -A stable state in SLA where L2 lea
14、rners cease their IL development in some respects before they reach target language norms, in spite of continuing L2 input and passage of time.According to Seiinker (1972), “a mere 5%” can overcome IL fossilization and reach target language competence; the majority of L2 learners cannot, no matter w
15、hat the age or amount of explanation or instruction5?Question:Think of the causes of fossilization.Chapter 5 FLA vs SLA (pl6-24)Outline5.1 Two ways of research studyFirst language acquisition5.2 Second language acquisitionThe L2=L1 hypothesis5.1 Two ways of research studyCross-sectional study (横向研究)
16、is a research method that involve observation of all of a population, or a representative subset, at a defined time.Longitudinal study (纵向研究)is a correlational research study that involves repeated observations of the same variables over long periods of timeFirst language acquisitionHow do children
17、acquire their mother tongue?What are the stages in LI acquisition?a) Possession: This is Mamas book.b) Request: Mama gave me the book.c) Statement: Mama is reading the book.d) 2.1 Stages in child language acquisitionA silent periodOne word (holophrastic) stage (1-1.5 years)(e.g. daddy, candy, door)T
18、wo word stage (1.5-2 years)(e.g. baby chair, Mommy sock)Telegraphic Stage (2-2.5 years)(e.g. chair broken, what her book, I good boy)Fine-tuning (inversion, wh-questions)e) 2.2 The logical problem of language learningHow is it possible fbr children to achieve the final state of LI development with g
19、eneral ease and complete success, given the complexity of the linguistic system which they acquire and their immature cognitive capacity at the age they do so?5.2 Second language acquisitionIs there a natural order in the grammatical development of L2 learners?The early stages of L2 acquisition in n
20、aturalistic setting involve:Expressions which are learnt asunanalyzable wholes5.2.1. Morpheme order studies (p43-44)Roger Brown (1973) provided the first baseline information on an L1 acquisition sequence by tracking the order in which three children mastered the production of a set of grammatical m
21、orphemes in English.Based on studies of children loaming English who were native speakers of Spanish and Chinese, Dulay and Burt (1974) claimed that this sequence constituted a natural order for English L2 as well as English LI.Brown (1973) and Dulay and Burt (1974) findings is given belowEnglish LI
22、 and L2 Morpheme Acquisition OrderEnglish LIMorphemeExampleEnglish L2 11Progressive-山gHe is talking.2Plural -sThere are two cats.43Past irregularWe ate.74Possessive -sThe childs toy.8i 1JMritcies a/ertetrie cuT/rT-aciy：6Past regular -edThey talked.6 17Third person -sHe sings.9qQ4m4Ic t JOCOpUIQ DSre
23、 s Tan.ocAuxttiary Deone s singing.Conclusion:1) Although not identical, the order of morpheme acquisition reported was similar in LI and L2.2) The order was virtually the same in English L2 whether children were LI speakers of Spanish or Chinese (not subject to LI).3) SLA is seen as a recreation co
24、ntinuum rather than restructuring continuum.The longitudinal studies which focus on the acquisition of particular grammatical sub-systems-negation, interrogation, and relative clauses provide the strongest evidence for a natural route for development.1) NegationStep 1 External negatione.g. No very g
25、ood.No you playing here.Step 2 The negative particle is moved inside the utterance.c.g. Mariana not coming today.I no can swim.I dont see nothing mop.Step 3 negative attachment to modal verbs.e.g. I canl play this one.I wont go.Step 4 The target language rule is reached.c.g. He doesnt know anything.
26、I didnt said it.She didnt believe me.2) InterrogationStep 1 intonation questionse.g. Sir plays football today?I writing on this book?Whats this?Step 2 Wh-question appear, no subject-verb innversion.e.g. What you are doing?What tub, mean?Where you work?Step 3 Inversion occurs (inversion with be tends
27、 to occur before inversion with do)c.g. Arc you a nurse?Where is the girl?What is shes doing here?Step 4 Embedded question.e.g. I tell you what did happen?I dont know where do you live?I dont know what he had.3) Relative clausesStep 1 relative clauses used to modify the object of a sentence were acq
28、uired first.e.g. And she said all the bad things that he do.Joshuas a boy who is silly.Step 2 relative clauses modifying the subject of a sentence appeared later.e.g. But the one you gonna go it dont have ice.The boy who doesnt have anybody to live, they take care of the dogs.4) 4 The L2=L1 hypothes
29、isThe above studies (morpheme order studies, negation, interrogation and relative clauses) arc all evidences fbr L2=L1 hypothesis, under which, SLA is characterized by a natural route of development and this route of development is common to both LI acquisition and SLA.Features of L2=L1 hypothesisLI
30、 transfer is negligible. There is universality in acquisition sequences.Question:What arc the differences between first language acquisition and second language acquisition?Chapter 6 Differences in learnersYour English learning experience1. When did you start to learn English? Do you think age is an
31、 important factor in the acquisition of a language? How?2. Do you think female are better at language learning than male?3. Tell us your personality! Do you think it is essential fbr your language learning?4. For what purpose do you learn English?Individual differencesHow do individuals di昧r in lear
32、ning languages?Age Sex Aptitude Motivation Cognitive style Personality Learning strategiesA clear pattern of age (p.l 06)Critical period hypothesis (p.l07)临界期假说Critical period hypothesisThe theory that there is a period when language acquisition takes place naturally and effortlessly.According to th
33、e biologist Lcnncbcrg, the critical period lasts until puberty (around age 12 or 13 years), and is due to biological development.Lenncbcrg suggested that language learning may be more difficult after puberty because the brain lacks the ability fbr adaptation. This, he believed, was because the langu
34、age flinctions of the brain have already been established in a particular part of the brain; that is, because lateralization has already occurred by this time.临界期假说认为儿童发展时期内有一段时间语言习得最顺利的一种理论。根据生物学家Lenncbcrg,关键时期持续至青春期(约十二或十三岁)，这是出于生物发展 原因。Lenneberg提出，语言学习过了青春期，由于大脑缺乏适应能力，会变得越来越难。他认为， 这是因为大脑的语言功能已经在大
35、脑某部位确立；也就是因为这个时期偏侧优势已经出现。Explanations of age affectsBiological/Neurological explanationGreater plasticity of the childs brainThe lateralization or specialization of functions in the adult brain (with the language fiinction concentrated in the left hemisphere fbr most people).Cognitive explanationAdu
36、lt learners rely on general, inductive learning abilities to leam a L2, while children use their language acquisition device.Affective explanation:Child learners are more strongly motivated to communicate with native speakers and to integrate culturally. Also, child learners are less conscious and t
37、herefore suffer less from anxiety aboutcommunicating in a L2.Aptitude语言能力倾向The natural ability to leam a language, not including intelligence, motivation, interest, etc. 天生的语 言学习能力，不包括智力、动机、兴趣等。Language aptitude is thought to be a combination of various abilities, such as the ability to identify sou
38、nd patterns in a new language, the ability to recognize the different grammatical functions of words in sentences, ROTE-LEARNING ability, and the ability to infer language rules. A person with high language aptitude can learn more quickly and easily than a person with low language aptitude, all othe
39、r factors being equal.语言倾向被认为是各种能力的综合，如辨认新语言语音模式的能力，识别句中单词的不同语法 功能的能力，死记硬背能力以及语言规则推断能力。在其它条件相同的情况下，语言能力倾向 强的人，比之语言倾向弱的人，学得快且容易。The following four components were proposed by Carroll as underlying this talent, and they constitute the bases fbr most aptitude tests:Phonemic coding abilityInductive lang
40、uage learning abilityGrammatical sensitivityAssociative memory capacityMotivation （zAM）Motivation involves the attitudes and affective states that influence the degree of effort that learners make to leam a L2. Various kinds of motivation have been identified.Integrative motivation:Some learners may
41、 choose to leam a particular L2 because they are interested in the people and culture represented by the target-language group.Instrumental motivationLearners may make efforts to learn an L2 fbr some functional reason-to pass an examination, to get a better job, or to get a place at university. In s
42、ome learning contexts, an instrumental motivation seems to be the major force determining success in L2 learning.Cognitive style （认知类型）Cognitive style is a term used to refer to the manner in which people perceive, conceptualize, organize, and recall infbnnation.For example, some may want explanatio
43、ns fbr grammatical rules; others may not need explanations. Some may feel writing down words or sentences helps them to remember them. Others may find they remember things better if they are associated with pictures.Cognitive style （认知类型）Field dependenceCognitive style Field independenceField depend
44、ence 场依存型A learning style in which a learner tends to look at the whole of a learning task which contains many items. The learner has difficulty in studying a particular item when it occurs within a “field“ of other item.指一类学习方式，如果一项学习任务中有许多项目，学习者总是把它们作为一个整体来看。 如果某一项目出现在其它项目的“领域”内，学习者学习起来就有难度。Field
45、independent 场独立型A learning style is one in which a learner is able to identify or fbcus on particular items and is not distracted by other items in the background or context.指学习者能够辨认或集中于特定项目而不受背景或上下文中其它语言项的分散。Global learning 整体式学习，亦作 gestalt style。A cognitive style in which the learner tries to reme
46、mber something as a whole. For example, a leaner may try to memorize complete sentences in a foreign language.认知类型的一种，学习者试图将事物作为一个整体来记忆。例如，学习者可能试图记住外语 里的完整句子。Analytic learningWhen a learner remembers something by separating it into parts, this is called analytic style, or part learning.For example,
47、a learner may divide a sentence into words, memorize the words, and then combine them again to make sentences.学习者将事物分成几个部分来记忆，这种方法称为分解式或分段学习法。例如，学习者可能将句子分成单词，记住单词，然后再组织成句子。Individual learning techniques and strategiesAre you a good language learner?Do you try to use words you have recently learnt?Do
48、 you answer the teachers question silently inyourself when he/she calls on another person?Do you succeed in finding out unknown vvords/expressions while reading or listening?Are you willing to talk in English at a reception where there are a lot of foreigners?When talking in English what is more important fbr you: that you should be understood or that what y