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1、精选优质文档-倾情为你奉上Chapter 1 introducing second language acquisition1. SLA: a term that refers both to the study of individuals and groups who are learning a language subsequent to learning their first one as young children, and to the process of learning that language.2. Second language: an officially or
2、 societally dominant language (not L1) needed for education, employment or other basic purposes3. Informal L2 learning: SLA that takes place in naturalistic contexts4. Formal L2 learning: instructed learning that takes place in classroom5. Linguistic competence: the underlying knowledge that a speak
3、er/hearer have of a language. Chomsky distinguishes this form linguistic performance.6. Linguistic performance: the use of language knowledge in actual production.7. First language/native language/mother tongue (L1): the language acquired in childhood8. Simultaneous multilingualism: ability to use o
4、ne or more languages that were auqired during early childhood.9. Sequential multilingualism: ability to use one or more languages that were learned after L1 had already been established.1. What are the three basic questions in SLA?(1) What exactly does the L2 learner come to know?(2) How does the L2
5、 leaner acquire this knowledge?(3) Why are some learners more successful than others?2. Why there are no simple answers to these questions? (P2)Chapter 2 foundations of second language acquisition1. Multilingualism: the ability to use more than one language.2. Bilingualism: the ability to use two la
6、nguages.3. Monolingualism: the ability to use only one language.4. Multilingual competence: “the compound state of a mind with two or more grammars”5. Monolingual competence: knowledge of only one language.6. Learner language: also called interlanguage which refers to the intermediate states or inte
7、rim grammars of leaner language as it moves toward the target L2.7. Positive transfer: appropriate incorporation(合并，编入) of an L1 structure or rule in L2 structure.8. Negative transfer: inappropriate influence of an L1 structure or rule in L2 use, also called interference.9. Fossilization: a stable s
8、tate in SLA where learners cease their interlanguage development before they reach target norms despite continuing L2 input and passage of time.10. Poverty-of-the-stimulus: the argument that because language input to children is impoverished(穷尽的) and they still acquire L1, there must be an innate ca
9、pacity for L1 acquisition.11. Innate capacity: a natural ability, usually referring to childrens natural ability to learn or acquire language.1. What is the nature of language learning?(1) Simultaneous/sequential multilingualism(2) The role of natural abilitya) Humans are born with a natural ability
10、 or innate capacity to learn another language. b) As children mature, so do their language abilities. c) Individual variation may occur in learning; the rate of learning can differ, but there are stages everyone goes through. d) “Cut off point”- if the process does not happen at a young age, youll n
11、ever learn the language. （关键期假说） (Critical Period Hypothesis) (3) The role of social experiencea) Children will never acquire language unless that language is used with them and around them, no matter what is their language. b) As long as children are experiencing input and social interaction, the r
12、ate and sequence of development doesnt change. c) The only thing that may change is pronunciation, vocabulary, and social function.2. What are some basic similarities and differences in L1 and L2 learning? (P17表格)(1) Similarities between L1 and L2a) Development stagesInitial State - knowledge about
13、language structures and principles Intermediate State - Basic language development Final State - Outcome of learningb) Necessary conditions: Input(2) Differences between L1 and L2（P17表格）3. What is “the logical problem of language acquisition”?(1) Childrens knowledge of language goes beyond what coul
14、d be learned from the input they receive. (Poverty-of-the stimulus)(2) Constraints and principles cannot be learned(3) Universal patterns of development cannot be explained by language-specific input.(如果说普遍语法存在孩子们脑中，那语言输入起的作用又如何解释呢？)4. Framework for SLA(P24&P26)Perspectives, foci, and frameworkspers
15、pectivefociframeworkLinguisticInternal Transformational-Generative GrammarPrinciples and Parameters ModelMinimalist ProgramexternalFunctionalismpsychologyLanguahe and the brainNeurolinguisticsLearning processesInformation ProcessingProcessability ConnectionismIndividual differenceHumanistic modelsSo
16、cialMicrosocialVariation TheoryAccomodation TheorySociocultural TheoryMacrosocialEthnography of CommunicationAcculturation TheorySocial Psychology5. Give at least three reasons that many scientists believe in some innate capacity for language(1) Children begin to learn their language at the same age
17、, and in much the same way regardless of what the language is.(2) Children are not limited to repeating what they heard; they can understand and create novel(新颖) utterance.(3) There is a cut-off age for L1 acquisition, beyond which it can never be completed.6. Linguists have taken an internal and ex
18、ternal focus to the study of language acquisition. What is the difference between the two?The internal focus seeks to account for speakers internalized, underlying knowledge of language. The external focus emphasizes language use, including the functions of language which are realized in learners pr
19、oduction at different stages of development. Chapter 3 the linguistics of second language acquisition1. Interference: also called negative transfer, which means inappropriate influence of an L1 structure or rule in L2 use.2. Interlanguage: also called learner language, which refers to the intermedia
20、te states or interim grammars of leaner language as it moves toward the target L2.3. Natural order: a universal sequence in the grammatical development of language learners.4. Universal grammar: a linguistic framework developed most prominently by Chomsky which claims that L1 acquisitions can be acc
21、ounted for only by innate knowledge that the human species is genetically endowed with. This knowledge includes what all languages have in common.5. Language faculty: term used by Chomsky foe a “component of the human mind” that accounts for childrens innate knowledge of language.6. Principles: prop
22、erties(固有属性) of all languages of the world; part of Chomskys universal grammar.7. Parameters: limited options in realization of universal principles which account for grammatical variation between languages of the world. Part of Chomskys theory of universal grammar. 8. Initial state: the starting po
23、int of language acquisition; it is thought to include the underlying knowledge about language structures and principles that are in learners heads at the very start of L1 or L2 acquisition. 9. Final state: the outcome of L1 and L2 learning, also known as the stable state of adult grammar. 10. Marked
24、ness: a basic for classification of languages according to whether a specific feature occurs more frequently than a contrasting element in the same category, is less complex structurally or conceptually, or is more “normal” or “expected” along some dimensions.11. Grammaticalization(语法化): a developme
25、ntal process in which a grammatical function(such as expression of past time) is first conveyed by shared extralinguistic knowledge and inferencing based on the context of discourse, then by a lexical word(such as yesterday), and only later by a grammatical marker(such as the suffix -ed).一、 The natu
26、re of language1. What we learn in linguistic perspective? What are the characteristics of language?Both L1 and L2 learners acquire knowledge at these different levels: lexicon(词汇学), phonology(语音学), morphology(构词法), syntax(句法). Languages are systemic, symbolic and social.二、 Contrastive analysis1. Wha
27、t is contrastive analysis?CA is an approach to the study of SLA which involves predicting and explaining learner problems based on a comparison of L1 and L2 to determine similarities and differences.2. What is the goal of contrastive analysis?(assumptions)(1) If L2 acquisition is disturbed by the ha
28、bits of your native language, it is reasonable to focus on the differences between native and target language.(2) Contrastive analysis had a practical goal: If you recognize the differences between your native language and the target language, you are able to overcome the linguistic habits of your n
29、ative language that interfere with the habits of the target language.3. What are the critiques of contrastive analysis?(1) The process of L2 acquisition is not sufficiently described by the characterization of errors.(2) Errors in L2 acquisition do not only arise from interference.(3) The structural
30、 differences between two languages are not sufficient to predict the occurrence of errors in L2 acquisition.三、 Error analysis1. What is error analysis？EA is based on the description and analysis of actual learner errors in L2, rather than on idealized linguistic structures attributed to native speak
31、ers of L1 and L2 (as in CA). 2. What is the difference between CA and EA?Contrastive analysisError analysisPedagogical orientationScientific orientationFocus on input, practice, inductive learningFocus on linguistic and cognitive processesErrors of transferMultiple types of errors3. What are the sho
32、rtcomings of EA?(1) Ambiguity in classification. (不知道是具体是哪个原因导致比如时态错误，可能是一语影响，也可能是在一语中出现过的universal developmental process)(2) Lack of positive data. (正确的被忽略，只关注错误不能看出学生学到什么)(3) Potential for avoidance. (学生会避免错误，这样错误就不能全部被观察)四、 Interlanguage1. What are the characteristics of interlanguage?(1) Systema
33、tic.(2) Dynamic.(3) Variable.(可变性) although systematic, differences in context result in different patterns of language use.(4) Reduced system, both in form and function. (学习者经常会简单化)2. There are differences between IL development and L1 acquisition, including different cognitive processes involved:(
34、1) Language transfer from L1 to L2.(2) Transfer training.(3) Strategies of second language learning. (避免等)(4) Strategies of second language learning. (为方便不要复数等)(5) Overgeneralization of the target language linguistic material.3. The beginning and the end of IL are defined respectively as whenever a
35、learner first attempts to convey meaning in the L2 and whenever development “permanently” stops, but the boundaries are not entirely clear. Identification of fossilization is even more controversial. 五、 Monitor model (The input hypothesis model)1. Which five hypotheses(假定) does the model consist of?
36、 (课本P45！)(1) Acquisition-learning hypothesis(2) Monitor hypothesis(3) Natural order hypothesis(4) Input hypothesis(5) Affective filter hypothesis2. What is LAD in this model?The LAD is made up of the natural language learning abilities of the human mind, totally available in L1 acquisition, availabl
37、e in L2 acquisition according to the level of the filter.But, the process of learning, unlike the process of acquisition, uses faculties of mind outside the LAD.3. 图示4. What are points of the consensus of early linguistic study of SLA?(1) What is being acquired through a dynamic interlanguage system
38、(2) How SLA takes place involves creative mental processes(3) Why some learners are more successful than others relates primary to the age.5. What is the role of grammar according to Krashen?The only instance in which the teaching of grammar can result in language acquisition (and proficiency) is wh
39、en the students are interested in the subject and the target language is used as a medium of instruction. 六、 Universal grammar1. Differences of linguistic competence and performance(见Chapter1名词解释)2. What is UG? (名词解释)3. UG and L1 acquisition(1) What the child acquire is selecting parametric options.
40、(2) Unlike SLA, attitudes, motivations and social context play no role.4. UG and SLA, there are three important questions(1) What is the initial state of SAL?Interference(看参数相同不相同); no agreement on access to UG(2) What is the nature of IL and how does it change over time?定参数的过程Language faculty; posi
41、tive/negative evidence(起作用); constructionism; fossilization(3) What is the final state in SLA?(P52五个达不到的原因)七、 Functional approaches (systemic linguistics)1. What are the four functional approaches?They are Systemic Linguistics; Functional Typology; Function-to-form mapping; Information organization.
42、2. What is Systemic Linguistics(系统功能语言学)?Developed by Hilliday in the late 1950s, it is a model for analyzing language in terms of the interrelated systems of choices that are available for expressing meaning.儿童的语言体系是一个意义体系，语言是从意义体系逐渐发展而来，经历过有简单到复杂的过程。不同有不同意义，根据需要选择最佳的（红绿灯）。3. What acquire by langua
43、ge learners is meaning potential. There are seven functions of language. (P53)4. Systemic linguists advance four theoretical claims about language:a) That language use is functional;b) That its function is to make meanings;c) That these meanings are influenced by the social and context in which they
44、 are exchanged.d) That the process of using language is a semiotic process, a process of making meanings by choosing.5. All of the functional approaches discussed here basically agree on the following:a) What is being acquired in SLA is a system for conveying meaning,b) How language is acquired impo
45、rtantly involves creative learner involvement in communication, andc) Understanding of SLA processes is impossible if they are isolated from circumstances of use.Chapter 4 the psychology of second language acquisition1. Lateralization: different specification of two halves of the brain. For example,
46、 the left hemisphere becomes specialized for most language activity, many believe during a critical period for language development.2. Critical period hypothesis(临界期假设): the claim that children have the only a limited number of years during which they can acquire their L1 flawlessly; if they suffer
47、brain damage to the language areas, brain plasticity in childhood would allow other areas of the brain to take over the language functions of the damaged area, but beyond a certain age, normal language development would not be possible. This concept is commonly extended to SLA as well, in the claim
48、that only children are likely to achieve native or near-native proficiency in L2.3. Information processing (IP): a cognitive framework which assumes that SLA (like learning of other domains) proceeds from control to automatic processing and involves progressive reorganization of knowledge.4. Controlled processing: r an initial stage of the learning process that demands learners attention.5. Automatic processing: after an initial stage of control processing, automatic processing is a