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1、Implementing TaskBased Language Instruction实施任务型语言教学 Luo ShaoqianThe Chinese University of Hong KongBeijing Normal UniversityThree Dimensions of Language TeachingGoal(i.e.why the language is being taught)Content(i.e.what is taught)Type A syllabuses Type B syllabusesMethodology(i.e.how it is taught)a
2、ccuracy fluencyGrammar TranslationGoalContentMethodologyAbility to read literature in the L2Type A(list of grammar rules and words to be taught)Accuracy(i.e.accurate translation of L2 into L1)AudioLingualismGoalContentMethodologyAbility to communicateType A(list of linguistic items to be taught)Accu
3、racy(I.e.focus on targetlike use of the L2)Notional/Functional TeachingGoalContentMethodologyAbility to communicateType A(i.e.a list of notions and functionsAccuracy(i.e.focus on targetlike use of the L2)TaskBased TeachingGoalContentMethodologyAbility to communicateType B(i.e.a series of messagefocu
4、sed tasks)Fluency(i.e.focus on message conveyance)Traditional TaskbasedTraditional formfocus pedagogyTeacher controls topic development turn taking is regulated by the teacherTaskbased pedagogy students able to control topic development speakers can selfselect questions that questioner already knows
5、 the answer to little need or opportunity to negotiate meaningScaffolding directed primarily at enabling students to produce correct sentencesquestions that the questioner does not know the answer toOpportunities to negotiate meaning when communication problems ariseScaffolding directed primarily at
6、 enabling students to say what they want to sayFormfocused feedback,i.e.the teacher responds to the correctness of students utterancesThe teacher repeats what a student has said for the benefit of the whole classContentfocused feedback,i.e.the teacher responds to the message content of the students
7、utteranceA student elects to repeat something another student or teacher has said as private speech or to establish intersubjectivity First generation tasksThe main aim of first generation tasks is to develop students communicative ability in a specific type of situation or area of language.The task
8、 is often structured around a particular set of functions or a simple problem.(Littlewood,2004;Ribe&Vidal,1993)Second generation tasksThe tasks in the second category pose challenges of a broader nature.They aim at developing not only communicative skills but also general cognitive strategies of han
9、dling and organizing information,such as analysing what information is needed in order to complete the task,collecting information,selecting relevant data Third generation tasksWith third generation tasks,the scope widens further.In addition to the communicative and cognitive strategies,they also ai
10、m to develop the personality of students through the experience of learning a foreign language.They go further than the previous tasks in aiming to fulfill wider educational objectives,such as enhancing motivation and awareness,developing creativity and interpersonal skills Task Types 1.Unfocussed t
11、asksa.Pedagogicb.Real world2.Focused tasksAn Example of a Pedagogic Task1.Four students each has one picture and describes it to the rest of the class.2.Students from the rest of the class ask the four students questions about their pictures.3.One student from the class tries to tell the story.4.If
12、necessary Steps 2 and 3 are repeated.Some Typical Pedagogic Tasks1.Informationgap tasks(e.g.Same or Different)2.Opiniongap tasks(e.g.Balloon debates)3.Reasoninggap tasks4.Personal tasks5.Roleplay tasksNote:Tasks can be dialogic or monologic;they can be performed orally or in writing.A RealWorld Task
13、 Look at the email message below.Listen to Mr.Pointers instructions on the tape.Make notes if you want to.Then write a suitable reply to Lesieur.Dear Mr.PointerPlease send flight number,date and time of arrival and I will arrange for someone to meet you at the airport.Lesieur.Roleplay activitiesVery
14、 often in roleplay situations there is no actual outcome for students to achieve,other than to enact their roles.Students have to think of suitable things to say to each other,but they are unlikely to be exchanging real meaning.Jane Willis Two Approaches to Using Tasks1.Use tasks to support a Type A
15、 approach.tasksupported teaching(Type A)weak form of communicative language teaching2.Use tasks as the basis for teaching taskbased teaching(Type B)strong form of communicative teachingA Focused TaskCan you spot the differences?BAA Focused TaskCan you spot the difference?ABA Framework for Describing
16、 Tasks1.Goal2.Input3.Conditions4.Predicted outcomes:a.Processb.ProductImplementing taskbased instruction from a processingpedagogic view pointDangers:if implemented without care,likely to create pressure for immediate communication rather than interlanguage change and growth;may encourage learners t
17、o use excessively and prematurely lexical modes of communication.Possibility to minimize the dangers:to draw on cognitive psychology and second language acquisition research that emphasizes processing factors.Learners must be able to develop their interlanguage systems in more complex ways through c
18、ycles of analysis and synthesis:revisiting areas;learning in a simple,straightforward manner;developing by relexicalizing available syntactically which need not be used on such a basis.The Methodology of TaskBased TeachingThree phases in a taskbased lesson:1.Pretask phase2.Main task phase3.Posttask
19、phaseTask 1Highlighting main ideasTask 2Planning the weekend Task 3Expressing environmental views Task 4Shopping in a supermarketTask 5Radio weather information Methodological stages in implementing tasks实施任务的方法阶段阶段目标典型技巧任务前重构（句子/思维）意识培养语言创建准备/计划减轻认知压力任务中平衡/融合语言的任务选择准确和流利控制压力任务后 1鼓励准确性及重构公众演示分析/测试任务
20、后 2综合/分析演练任务排序任务分类Methodological stages in implementing tasksStage Goal Typical techniquesPretaskRestructuring Consciousness establish target language raising reduce cognitive loadPlanningDuring Mediate accuracy&fluency Task choicePressure manipulationPost 1Encourage accuracy&Public performancerestr
21、ucturingAnalysis/TestingPost 2Cycle of synthesis&Task sequencesanalysisTask familiesPretask workAt this stage,the task itself is the primary factor,taskcompletion is the aim that dominate.1)To set up the relevant language for a task:to deal some form of preteaching,can be both explicit and implicit
22、2)Give learners a pretask to do and then equip them with the language they needPretask work2to ease the processing load when learners doing a task:a range of tasks can be used to reduce 认知复杂度 1)familiarity leads to recall schematic knowledge they have;2)observe similar tasks on video or listen to or
23、 read comparable tasks;3)do related tasks to activate schema4)engage in pretask planning:language to use,meanings to express.So they can devote more attention to how to carry out thetask and produce more accurate,complex,and fluent language.The Pretask PhaseThree purposes:to serve to introduce new l
24、anguage that learners can use while performing the task;to mobilize existing linguistic resources;to ease processing load,and to push learners to interpret tasks in more demanding waysSome options:Allow the students time to plan.1.Provide a model2.Do a similar task3.Preteach key linguistic itemsThe
25、Pretask PhaseOn general cognitive demands of the task 对任务要求的总体感知对任务要求的总体感知An emphasis on linguistic factors 关注语言因素关注语言因素Supporting learners in performing a task similar to the task they will perform in the duringtask phase of the lesson 让学生做一些在后面完成任务时需要的准备工作让学生做一些在后面完成任务时需要的准备工作Nontask preparation a
26、ctivities brain storming 大脑风暴大脑风暴 mind map 思维图思维图 The Pretask PhaseAddressing linguistic demands of a taskpredicting,i.e.asking learners to brainstorm a list of words related to the task title or topicProviding a model 提供一个示范提供一个示范Asking students to observe a model of how to perform the task 让学生观察完成
27、任务的模式让学生观察完成任务的模式Performing a similar task 完成一些简单的任务完成一些简单的任务 simply observing others perform a task can help reduce the cognitive load on the learner (Skehan,1996)这个阶阶段段是以学习者为中心及任务型学习模式的有关理论为指导，在Pre-task Pre-task phasephase这一环节的教学安排时，考虑为学生的学习创设良好的学习环境，使学生成为主动学习者。在呈现新的内容时，将构成任务内容的新的语言材料的音、意和语言使用环境同时
28、输入给学生。The DuringTask PhaseSome options:1.Participatory structure 参与方式参与方式:Wholeclass vs.small group work;individual or interaction 2.Set a time for completing the task.3.Vary the number of participants.4.Introduce a surprise element.5.Tell students they will have to present a report to the whole cla
29、ss.pair and group work are seen as central to taskbased teaching;not all tasks are interactive（二）新语言材料的操练（二）新语言材料的操练（during-task phase）the main task phasethe main task phase是指语言技能的习得过程。研究内容：探讨了如何使语言技能的训练能够吸引学生积极、主动的参与，如何使语言知识的积累、语意功能的训练与主题结合。During the taskAt this stage,learners are reminded that fl
30、uency is not theonly goal during task completion,and that restructuringand accuracy also have importanceTask choice:the appropriate difficulty level.1too difficult:excessive mental processing to communicate any sort of meaning:ellipsis,context,strategies and lexicalization which reduce the pedagogic
31、 value of a taskbased approach.2too easy:boring,no serious engagement no gain in terms of stretching interlanguage or automaticity development(Swain,1985)During the taskSyllabus:implementation decisions 1to alter the task difficulty2manipulate the way in which attention is directed accuracy to be st
32、ressed?specific structures to be used3to make a task less difficult:visual support,such as a diagram 4to make a task more difficult:surprise elements which learners dont expect,e.g.additional evidence in a“judge”task.5The communicative stress factors:time,modality,participants/relationships,importan
33、ce of the task,participants control over the task.The PostTask PhaseThree major pedagogical goals:提供再做任务的机会提供再做任务的机会（to provide an opportunity for a repeat performance of the task）反思任务是怎样完成的反思任务是怎样完成的 （to encourage reflection on how the task was performed）关注语言的形式关注语言的形式 （to encourage attention to fo
34、rm）Posttask activitiesPost 11performance:the knowledge while the task is being done may have to be redone publicly this leads to learners attention to the goals of restructuring and accuracy.2analysis:the concern with syntax and analysis is infiltrated into the task work without the heavy-handedness
35、 of the teacher intervention and error correction.Repeat performanceCarry out second performance publicly（全班，当众）Complexity increases 复杂度提高了Express more clearly 表达更清楚了Become more fluent 语言更流利了Posttask activitiesPost 21examine task sequences,task progression,and how sets of tasks relate to one another
36、:1)to repeat tasks so learners are more effective with the analysis and synthesis2)parallel tasks:tasks are similar but with new elements so to engage the learner interest.2task families:groups of tasks resemble one another and have similar language or cognitive demands(Candlin,1987)so learners are
37、clearer of the goals of such task groups and teachers and learners share views about task requirements.The posttask phase的四种主要活动的四种主要活动Reviewing of learner errors反思错误Consciousnessraising tasks语法意识Productionpractice activities操练活动Noticing activities 注意语言的准确Reviewing of learner errorsTeacher moves fro
38、m group to group to listen and note down the errorsAddress these errors with the whole class can be written on the board students can be invited to correct it listen again and edit their own performance teacher comments on Consciousnessraising tasksThere is an attempt to isolate a specific linguisti
39、c feature for focused attention 就某一语法现象单独讲解就某一语法现象单独讲解The learners are provided with data that illustrate the targeted feature or an explicit rule describing or explaining the feature 给例子说明语法用法或对语法详细描述给例子说明语法用法或对语法详细描述The learners are expected to utilize intellectual effort to understand the targete
40、d features 通过思考理解语法用法通过思考理解语法用法Learners may be optionally required to verbalize a rule describing the grammatical structure 可以是学生口头表达可以是学生口头表达To direct students to attend explicitly to a specific form they used incorrectly or failed to use at all in the main task 补充不足补充不足 Productionpractice activiti
41、esRepetition 重复活动Substitution 替换练习Gapped sentences 填空练习Jumbled sentences 打乱的句子Transformation drills 变换句型Dialogues 对话Noticing activities Focusing on linguistic formDictation Editing Writing and teacher commentsReflecting on the taskPresent a report on how they did the task and what they decided or di
42、scovered oral or written Summary the outcome of the taskReflect or evaluate of their own performance(fluency,complicity or accuracy)Metacognitive strategies 元认知策略元认知策略(planning,monitoring and evaluating)在Post-task activity环节中，安排的语言输出活动，应该有以下几个特点：1、贴近生活的语言使用环境(life-like situations)；2、交谈的双方之间有信息差(info
43、rmation gap)；3、解决实际问题(problem solving)；4、发挥学生的自主性(active)或创造性(creative)。（一）（一）“任务型学习模式任务型学习模式”的框架的框架Task Circle Pre-task preparation While-task procedure Post-task activityMechanical practiceMeaningful practiceThe Foods I Eat(for students)Task 1:Having a picnicSituation:Some children are going to ha
44、ve a picnic.What food are they going to have?Can you give them some ideas?What food do you usually have?Name some of your favourite ones.Subtask1:What food do they want for the picnic?Instruction:Now the children are deciding what they want.Look at the picture carefully and find out the answer by fi
45、lling in the blanks.Subtask2:buying food at the food shopInstructions:Lily and Mary are at the supermarket.They are buying food for the picnic.Please listen to their conversation carefully.Fill in the chart.Subtask3:eating at the picnicInstructions:Now the children are at the picnic.They have lots o
46、f food.Read the conversation between Coco and Sam.Complete the one between Helen and Tim.The Foods I Eat(for teachers)Task 1.Having a picnicAims of the task:1.to identify kinds of foods2.to express likes or dislikes3.to understand the communicative language at the food shopSubtask2:buying food at th
47、e food shopTask requirements:Communicative language at a shop.Listening skillGeneral:To ask and answer questions about buying and selling at shopsSpecific:To assess students ability to:make a conversation at a shop.get information from a conversation.sum up the main idea of the conversation.write mo
48、ney in numbers.WHOS WHO IN THE FAMILYFamily members,BE,Who/whose Structure/Vocabulary:Family members,BE,Who/whose Functions:Talking about families Materials:(1)Cards with description of a new family(1per student)(2)Find Someone Who.Sheet(3)Model Paragraph PRE ACTIVITY Skills:Speaking and listening O
49、rganization:Whole class Procedures:Class asks teacher about his/her family(real)or imaginary.ACTIVITY Skills:Speaking,listening,writing.Organization:Mixer Procedures:(l)Give out cards(one per student):explain that this is their new family.(2)Explain any vocabulary or pronunciation problems.(3)Give o
50、ut Find Who.?”sheet and explain how it works.Students will answer with information from their new families.(4)Done as a mixer.The first student to fill out the sheet correctly wins.POST ACTIVITY Skills:Writing,(speaking,listening)Organization:Individual/pairs.Procedures:(1)Go over model paragraph.(2