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1、翻译理论知识概要翻译理论知识概要第一部分：翻译术语第一部分：翻译术语1.Definitions of translationTranslationcanberoughlydefinedasareproductionorrecreationinonelanguageofwhatiswrittenorsaidinanotherlanguage.Beingaverycomplicatedhumanactivity,itswholepictureisnevereasytodescribe.Scholarswithdifferentacademicbackgroundshaveattemptedtode
2、fineitfromvariousperspectives.(1).Linguistic Views on TranslationTranslationtheoristsfromthelinguisticschoolconceiveoftranslationasalinguisticactivityandsomebelievethattranslationtheoryisabranchoflinguistics,approachingtheissuesoftranslatingprimarilyfromtheviewpointofthelinguisticdifferencesbetweens
3、ourceandtargettexts.Translationmaybedefinedasthereplacementoftextualmaterialinonelanguage(thesourcelanguage)byequivalenttextualmaterialinanotherlanguage(thetargetlanguage).(Catford,1965:20).Translatingconsistsinreproducinginthereceptorlanguagetheclosestnaturalequivalentofthesource-languagemessage,fi
4、rstintermsofmeaningandsecondlyintermsofstyle.(Nida&Taber,1969:12).Translationtheoryderivesfromcomparativelinguistics,andwithinlinguistics,itismainlyanaspectofsemantics;allquestionsofsemanticsrelatetotranslationtheory.(Newmark,1982/1988:5).(2).Cultural Views on TranslationIntheculturalapproach,transl
5、ationisregardednotonlyasatransferoflinguisticsigns,butalsoasacommunicationofcultures,i.e.translationisaninterculturalcommunication;hencethetermsofinterculturalcooperation,acculturation,andtransculturation.TranslationisaprocesswhichoccursbetweenculturesratherthansimplybetweenlanguagesShuttleworth&Cow
6、ie,1997:35).Atranslatorwhousesaculturalapproachissimplyrecognizingthateachlanguagecontainselementswhicharederivedfromitsculture(suchasgreetings,fixedexpressionsandREALIA),thateverytextisanchoredinaspecificculture,andthatconventionsoftextproductionandreceptionvaryfromculturetoculture(Shuttleworth&Cow
7、ie1997:35).Fortrulysuccessfultranslating,biculturalismisevenmoreimportantthanbilingualism,sincewordsonlyhavemeaningsintermsoftheculturesinwhichtheyfunction.(Nida,2001:82).翻译不仅涉及语言问题,也涉及文化问题。译者不仅要了解外国的文化,还要深入了解自己民族的文化。不仅如此,还要不断地把两种文化加以比较,因为真正的对等应该是在各自文化中的含义、作用、范围、感情色彩、影响等等都是相当的。翻译者必须是一个真正意义的文化人。人们会说：
8、他必须掌握两种语言;确实如此,但是不了解语言当中的社会文化,谁也无法真正掌握语言(王佐良,1989)。(3).Literary Views on TranslationTranslatorswhoholdthisviewbelievethattranslationisanartisticrecreationorarecreatedart.SomemodernWesternscholarsfromtheliteraryschooltakeliterarytranslationtobethemanipulationorrewritingofthesourcetexts.文学翻译的任务是要把原作中包
9、含的一定社会生活的映象完好无损地从一种语言移注到另一种语言中,在翻译过程中追求语言的艺术美,再现原作的艺术性。用茅盾的话说,是使读者在读译文的时候能够像读原作时一样得到启发、感动和美的感受。语言是塑造文学形象的工具,因而文学的形象性特征必然要在语言上表现出来。文学语言的特征,诸如形象、生动、鲜明、含蓄、凝练、准确、风趣、幽默、辛辣、滑稽、悦耳、民族特点、地方色彩,还有行业习语、民间的俚语、谚语等等,都是作家根据塑造形象的需要,从现实生活中提炼创造出来的。文学作品的艺术形式与思想内容是辩证统一的,翻译要保存原作风格特点,因此要求译文生动形象、形神毕肖、雅俗等同、简洁精美、词情并茂(译学辞典200
10、4:291)。(4).Semantic Views on TranslationThisviewfocusesonthesemanticequivalencebetweenthetwolanguages,aswellexpressedbyEugeneNida(1986):Translatingmeanstranslatingmeaning.Translationisrenderingthemeaningofatextintoanotherlanguageinthewaythattheauthorintendedthetext(Newmark,1988:5).Semantictranslatio
11、n:thetranslatorattempts,withinthebaresyntacticandsemanticconstraintsofthetargetlanguage,toreproducetheprecisecontextualmeaningoftheauthor(Newmark,1982:22).Insemantictranslation,greaterattentionispaidtorenderingtheauthorsoriginalthought-processesintargetlanguagethantoattemptingtore-interpretsourcetex
12、tinawaywhichthetranslatorconsidersmoreappropriateforthetargetsetting(Shuttleworth&Cowie,1997:151).(5).Functional Views on TranslationFunctionalistsbelievethattranslationisaspecificformofhumanactionwithacertainpurpose,akindoflinguisticserviceprovidedtothesociety.Translatorsshouldtakeintoaccountthenee
13、dsoftheclient,thereaderaswellasthepurposeoruseofthetranslation:Itisnotthesourcetext,oritseffectsonthesource-textrecipient,orthefunctionassignedtoitbytheauthor,thatdeterminesthetranslationprocess,buttheprospectivefunctionorpurposeofthetargettextasdeterminedbytheinitiators,i.e.clientsneeds(Baker,2001:
14、236).(6).Communicative Views on TranslationThisapproachviewstranslationasacommunicativeprocesswhichtakesplacewithinasocialcontext.Communicativetranslation:thetranslatorattemptstoproducethesameeffectonthetargetlanguagereadersaswasproducedbytheoriginalonthesourcelanguagereaders(Newmark,1982:22).Commun
15、icativetranslationisgenerallyorientedtowardstheneedsofthetargetlanguagereaderorrecipient.Atranslatorwhoistranslatingcommunicativelywilltreatsourcetextasamessageratherthanamerestringoflinguisticunits,andwillbeconcernedtopreservesourcetextsoriginalfunctionandtoreproduceitseffectonthenewaudience(Shuttl
16、eworth&Cowie,1997:21).Theaboveviewshelpustounderstandthecomplexnatureoftranslation.Sincetherearemanyfactorswhichaffectthetranslationprocess,translationisacomplicatedhumanactivity.2.Translation Criteria Put Forward by Famous Translators or Translation TheoristsSomewell-knowntranslatorsortranslationth
17、eoristsathomeandabroadhaveputforwardcriteriatojudgethequalityofatranslation.(1).严复严复(1853-1921):Triple Principle of Translation信信(faithfulness):忠实准确忠实准确达达(expressiveness:通顺流畅通顺流畅雅雅(elegance):文字古雅文字古雅YanFuputforwardthisThree-characterGuide”inhisprefacetothetranslationofT.H.HuxleysbookEvolutionandEthi
18、csandOtherEssays(天演论译例言1898):译事三难信达雅。求其信己大难矣。顾信矣不达。虽译犹不译也。则达尚焉.易曰修辞立诚。子曰辞达而已。又曰言之无文，行之不远。三者乃文章正轨。亦即为译事楷模。故信达而外，求其尔雅。此不仅期以行远已耳。实则精理微言。用汉以前字法句法，则为达易。用近世利俗文字，则求达难。往往抑义就词，毫厘千里。审择于斯二者之间，夫固有所不得已也。岂钓奇哉。.Translationhastodothreedifficultthings:tobefaithful,expressive,andelegant.Itisdifficultenoughtobefaithfu
19、ltotheoriginal,andyetifatranslationisnotexpressive,itistantamounttohavingnotranslation.Henceexpressivenessshouldberequiredtoo.TheBookofChangessaysthatthefirstrequisiteofrhetoricistruthfulness.Confuciussaysthatexpressivenessisallthatmattersinlanguage.Headdsthatifoneslanguagelacksgrace,itwontgofar.The
20、sethreequalities,then,arethecriteriaofgoodwritingand,Ibelieve,ofgoodtranslationtoo.Hencebesidesfaithfulnessandexpressiveness,Ialsoaimatelegance.Istriveforelegancenotjusttomakemytranslationstravelfar,buttoexpresstheoriginalwritersideasbetter,forIfindthatsubtlethoughtsarebetterexpressedinthevocabulary
21、andsyntaxofpre-Hanprosethanthoseofthevulgarwritingsoftoday.Usingthelatteroftenleadstodistortionofmeaning,which,howeverslight,resultsinvastmisunderstanding.Weighingtheprosandcons,Ioptedfortheformer,asamatterofnecessity,nottryingtobedifferentYanFusfirsttwocriteriaofbeingfaithfultotheoriginaltextincont
22、entandbeingexpressiveintranslationaregenerallyacceptable,buthisinterpretationofelegancehasarousedplentyofcriticismbecause,inhisopinion,onehastoresorttothevocabularyandsyntaxofpre-Hanprosetoachieveelegance.YanFuscriteriaarealsocontroversialforhisemphasisontheequalstatusofthethreeconflicingprinciples.
23、Despitethis,YanscriteriaarestillpopularinChina,buttheinterpretationofhiscriteriahaschanged.Nowadaystomanytranslators,eleganceimpliesthesafeandsoundpreservationofthetasteandshadeoftheoriginal”(黄龙,1988:90)or运用读者所最乐于接受的文体,使译文得以广泛流传，扩大影响(劳陇，翻译通讯1983年第10期).(2).鲁迅鲁迅 信（信（faithfulness)顺（顺（smoothness)翻译必须有异国
24、情调，就是所谓洋气。其实世界上也不会有完全归化的译文，倘有，就是貌合神离，从严辨别起来，它算不得翻译。凡是翻译，必须兼顾着两面，一当然力求其易解，一则保存着原作的丰姿，但这保存却又常常和易懂相矛盾：看不惯了。不过它原是洋鬼子，当然谁也看不惯，为比较的顺眼起见，只能改换他的衣裳，却不该削低他的鼻子，剜掉他的眼睛(鲁迅全集第6卷，48页)。(3).林语堂林语堂 忠实忠实faithfulness)通顺通顺(smoothness)美美(beautifulness)翻译的标准问题，大概包括三方面。我们可依三方面的次序讨论。第一是忠实标准，第二是通顺标准，第三是美的标准。这翻译的三层标准，与严氏的译事三难
25、，大体上是正相比符的。我们并须记得这所包括的就是：第一、译者对原文方面的问题，第二、译者对中文方面的问题，第三、是翻译与艺术文的问题。以译者所负的责任言，第一是译者对原著者的责任，第二是译者对中国读者的责任，第三是译者对艺术的责任。三样的责任全备，然后可以谓具有真正译家的资格。(论翻译,林语堂名著全集,1995:306)(4).傅雷傅雷:神似神似(resemblance in spirit)以效果而论，(文学)翻译应当像临画一样，所求的不在形似而在神似。(高老头重译本序，1951)(5).钱钟书：化境钱钟书：化境(reaching the acme of perfection)文学翻译的最高境
26、界是化，把作品从一国文字转变成另一国文字，既能不因语文习惯的差异而露出生硬牵强的痕迹，又能完全保存原有的风昧，那就算得入于化境。十七世纪有人赞美这种造诣的翻译，比为原作的投胎转世(thetransmigrationofsoul),躯壳换了一个，而精神姿致依然故我。换句话说，译本对原作应该忠实得以至于读起来不像译本，因为作品在原文里绝不会读起来像经过翻译似的。(林纾的翻译，1964)(6).刘重德：信（刘重德：信（faithhlness）达（达（expressiveness）切（切（closeness)信于内容(tobefaithfultothecontentoftheoriginal);达如其
27、分(tobeasexpressiveastheoriginal);切合风格(tobeasclosetotheoriginalstyleaspossible).(浑金璞玉集，1994:9)(7).许渊冲：三重标准许渊冲：三重标准(three levels of criteria)内容忠实(信)明确准确精确(三似)意似形似神似(三化)浅化等化深化形式通顺(达)易懂,通顺,扬长(雅,或传神)(8).Alexander Fraser TytIer(泰泰特勒特勒):Three Principles of TranslationAlexanderF.Tytler,afamousBritishtransla
28、tiontheorist,putforwardtheclassicalcriteriainhisEssay on the Principles of Translation(1790):1)Thetranslationshouldgiveacompletetranscriptoftheideasoftheoriginalwork(译作应该完全传达原作的思想)；2)Thestyleandmannerofwritinginthetranslationshouldbeofthesamecharacterwiththatoftheoriginal(译作的风格与笔调应当与原作保持一致)；3)Thetra
29、nslationshouldhavealltheeaseoftheoriginalcomposition(译作应当和原作一样流畅).Tytlerfurtherpointsoutthattheabove-saidthreeprinciplesarearrangedandrankedaccordingtotheorderoftheirsignificance,andthat,whentheyarenotsimultaneouslyattainable,thefirstshouldbeheldtoatthesacrificeofthethirdprinciple,thenthesecond.(9).
30、Eugene A.Nida(奈达奈达):Functional Equivalence(功能对等功能对等)EugeneA.Nida,afamousAmericantranslationtheorist,putforwardhisrecentinterpretationoffunctionalequivalenceinhisLanguage and Culture:Context in Translating(2001:87):1)Aminimal,realisticdefinitionoffunctionalequivalence:Thereadersofatranslatedtextshoul
31、dbeabletocomprehendittothepointthattheycanconceiveofhowtheoriginalreadersofthetextmusthaveunderstoodandappreciatedit.(最低限度而又切合实际的功能对等定义：译文读者对译文的理解应当达到能够想像出原文读者是怎样理解和领会原文的程度).2)Amaximal,idealdefinitionoffunctionalequivalence:Thereadersofatranslatedtextshouldbeabletounderstandandappreciateitinessentia
32、llythesamemannerastheoriginalreadersdid.(最高限度合乎理想的功能对等定义：译文读者应当能够基本上按照原文读者理解和领会原文的方式来理解和领会译文).3.Classification of translation(1).Jakobson(1896-1982)1)Intralingual translation or rewording is an interpretation of verbal signs by means of other signs of the same language.2)Interlingualtranslationortra
33、nslationproperisaninterpretationofverbalsignsbymeansofsomeotherlanguage.3)Intersemiotictranslationortransmutationisaninterpretationofverbalsignsbymeansofsignsofnonverbalsignsystems.e.g.1)原文：原文：子曰：“学而时习之，不亦乐乎!有朋友自远方来，不亦乐乎!人不知而不愠，不亦君子乎!”译文一译文一:孔子说:“学习了而时常温习，不也高兴吗！有朋友从远方来，不也快乐吗!别人不了解我，我并不怨恨，不也是君子吗？”(徐志
34、刚译)译文二译文二:TheMastersaid，Tolearnandatduetimestorepeatwhatonehaslearnt，Isthatnotafterallapleasure?Thatfriendsshouldcometoonefromafar,Isthisnotafteralldelightful?Toremainunsouredeventhoughonesmeritsareunrecognizedbyothers,Isthatnotafterallwhatisexpectedofagentleman?(Waley译)点评点评原文同译文一之间的转换属于语内翻译(intrali
35、ngualtranslation),即用同一语盲的其他语言符号对原文迸行阐释或者重述(rewording)。原文同译文二之间的转换属于语际翻译(interlingualtranslation)，即两个不同语言之间所进行的转换。2)原文原文：A:Whatdoesyourwatchsay?B:Itsays“fivepastthree”.点评点评在这一对话中，B实际上是在迸行一种翻译，这种翻译叫做符际翻译(intersemiotictranslation)，即语言同非语言符号之间的代码转换。当A询问B几点钟的时候，B只能看钟或者看手表，而钟或者手表并不能说话，B只能根据钟表的时针和分针来确定具体儿点
36、钟了。而B所言实际上是言语传达一个非言语信息(non-linguisticmessage)。将非言语信息用言语传达出来是翻译的一种方式，这不是从一种语言到另一种语言的转换过程，而是从非语言交际系统到语言交际系统的过程。非语言交际系统和语言交际系统的共同特征是两者都属于符号系统(即用于交际的系统)。雅可布逊Jakobson)将这种由非语言交际系统到语言交际系统的转换过程称为符际翻译是恰当的。其实，我们每个人每一天、每一刻都在迸行着符际翻译而不自知也。从这个意义上说，我们每个人都是某种意义上的译者(Herveyet.al1995:8-9).(2).Peter Newmark(纽马克纽马克):Com
37、municative and Semantic Translation(交际翻译与语义翻译交际翻译与语义翻译)PeterNewmark,afamousBritishtranslationtheorist,putforwardhisconceptsofcommunicativeandsemantictranslationinhisApproaches to Translation1)Communicativetranslationattemptstoproduceonitsreadersaneffectascloseaspossibletothatobtainedonthereadersofth
38、eoriginal.(交际翻译力图对译作读者产生尽可能接近原作读者所获得的效果).2)Semantictranslationattemptstorender,ascloselyasthesemanticandsyntacticstructuresofthesecondlanguageallow,theexactcontextualmeaningoftheoriginal.(语义翻译力图在译作语言的语义结构和句法结构允许的情况下，译出原作在上下文中的准确意义).(3).Christiane Nord“译文的功能并非由分析原文自动得出，而是由跨文化传意的目的决定的”。（Nord,1991:9）而译
39、文可以按照其传意功能分为两种类型，一种是能在目标文化的新情景中独立地起传意作用的工具；另一种是纪录作者与原文接受者如何在来源文化里传意的文献。换言之，翻译有两种方法：工具性翻译和文献性翻译。a)工具性翻译(instrumentaltranslation)有三种：1）等功能翻译：对目标读者发挥原文功能，例如，使用说明书；2）异功能翻译：发挥相似功能，例如把格列佛游记翻译给儿童阅读；3）相应翻译：在目标文学语境中再现原文在来源文学语境中的功能，以发挥与原文相应的效果，常见于诗歌翻译。b)文献性翻译(documentaltranslation)1）逐字翻译：再现原语系统；2）字面翻译：再现原文形式；
40、3）语文学翻译：结合字面翻译和文外阐释，再现原文的形式和内容；4）异化翻译：保留原文的文化背景，给译文接受者营造异国情调（Nord,1997:47-52；1991：73）4.Nature and Scope of TranslationWhatistranslation?Somepeoplebelieveitisascience,otherstakeitasanart,andyetmanyconsideritacraft,orrather,askill.Ofthesevariedopinions,whichoneholdstrueforourpurpose?Theanswerdependson
41、howweunderstandorinterpretthewordtranslation,fortheverywordtranslationitselfisambiguous,andtheChineseequivalentfanyisoundsevenfuzzier.Fanyi,inChinese,mayeitherstandforasubjectofthecurriculum,ajobpeopleengagein,apieceofliterarywork,orthetranslatingorinterpretingworkitself.Sometimes,fanyimayevenrefert
42、othetranslatororinterpreterhimself/herself.Ifthewordtranslationreferstoasubject,namely,thestudyoftranslationtheoryandskills,itisnodoubtascience,justasanysubjectis,withitsownrules,lawsandprinciplesforthetranslatorstoabideby;however,ifitreferstosomespecificpiecesoftranslation,thenitismorelikeanart,wit
43、heachpiecemanifestingitsowncharmsandstyleinthecreativehandsofthetranslator;whereas,ifitreferstoaprocess,inwhichsomethingistranslated,thenwemayregarditasacraftorskill.Forunlikeanybranchofnaturalscience,theprocessoftranslationhasitspeculiarity,andnoneofitsrulesandprinciplesareuniversallyapplicable.Bes
44、ides,itentailsalotofpracticeparticularcraftsmanshipandskillsaredisplayedbythetouchesofdifferenttranslators.Translationcoversaverybroadrange.Intermsoflanguages,itcanbedividedintotwocategories:fromnativelanguagesintoforeignlanguagesandviceversa;intermsofthemode,itcanbedividedintooralinterpretation,wri
45、ttentranslationandmachinetranslation;intermsofmaterialstobetranslated,thereistranslationofscientificmaterials,translationofliteraryworkssuchasnovels,stories,prose,poetry,drama,etc.,translationofpoliticalessayssuchastreatisesonsocialproblems,reports,speeches,etc.,andtranslationofpracticalwriting(asof
46、ficialdocuments,contractsandagreements,notices,receipts,etc.);intermsofdisposal,itcanbeeitherfull-texttranslation（全文翻译）,abridgedtranslation（摘译）oradaptedtranslation（编译）.5.Principles or Criteria of TranslationTheso-calledprinciplesandcriteriaoftranslationareactuallythetwosidesofthesamething.Theformerl
47、aysemphasisonthetranslator,whoshouldfollowthemwhiletranslating;whilethelatteronthereaderorcritic,whomayusethecriteriatoevaluatetranslationworks.WheneverprinciplesorcriteriaoftranslationareunderdiscussioninChina,Yan Fusthree-characterguide,whichwasfirstproposedin1898,wouldevokecontroversy,namely,thep
48、rincipleof信、达、雅(faithfulnessexpressivenessandelegance).InthepastdecadesMr.Yansprincipleoftranslationhasbeengenerallyregardedasaplumb-lineformeasuringtheprofessionalleveloftranslationandagoalfortranslatorstostriveafter.However,intheapplicationofthisprinciple,peoplehavecometofindsomelimitationstotheth
49、reecharactersandputforwardavarietyofnewstandardsinstead.Threekindsofopinionsareexpressedontheprincipleoffaithfulness,expressivenessandelegance.Thefirstgroupmaintainstheoriginalthreecharacters,andinthemeantime,addssomenewconceptstothecharacter雅.Accordingtothem,雅meansfarmorethantheEnglishwordelegance.
50、Apartfromthetraditionalinterpretation,italsomeansclassicism,theadherencetotheoriginalstyleandflavor.Thesecondgroup,however,arguesthattheword雅isoutofplaceintranslation.WhileadoptingthefirsttwocharactersofMr.YanFusprinciple,itdiscardsthecharacter雅andtriestofindsomeothernewcriteriainstead.Noticeably,th