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1、When a word loses its old meaning and comes to refer to something altogether different,the result is a change of word meaning.“Change of meaning is a commonplace,and indeed it would appear to be fundamental in living language,almost every word we use today has a slightly different meaning from the o
2、ne it had a century ago:and a century ago it had a slightly different meaning from the one it had a century before that.”_ Quirk 1963:123-124第1页/共123页Causes of changes in word meaning1.the world is changing社会是语言的外部因素（索绪尔，1980：43），但是社会又不是一般的外部因素，而是客体世界中最重要的外部因素，因为语言是特殊的社会现象，语言跟社会诸因素有千丝万缕的关系。1.1 旧词添新义
3、 carship1.2 科技发展 光环1.3 普通义位与科技义位间的转变 menu,window1.4 社会集团社会地位的变化 governor,lord1.5 经济的发展 狗、马1.6 民族或种族矛盾的原因 Dutch第2页/共123页2.Human being is changing2.1 认识水平在提高 heart,brain2.2 思想观念的更新 天堂、老板、演员、士兵2.3心理感情因素 求新：净面、洗脸、飚客、粉丝,闪族 求美：春风、教室 求省：机票、机场、机群、客机、班机 gold metal 求雅：euphemism 下岗、老、战略性撤退、穷 circumlocution lie
4、steallazy 感情因素（移情）：冤家第3页/共123页3.The language is changing3.1 semantic reason harvestautumn motor 左右 红白赤3.2 grammatical reason 廉颇老矣，尚能饭否？3.3 pragmatic reason斗 闻第4页/共123页2a.Extension of meaning b.Restriction of meaning c.Degeneration of meaningd.Elevation of meaninge.Transformation of meaning词义的变化第5页/共
5、123页Extension of MeaningIt is also called widening of meaning or generalization.Its a process by which a word which originally had a specialized meaning has now become generalized.第6页/共123页 Four kinds of extensionA.From specific to general B.From proper nouns to common nounsC.From concrete to abstra
6、ctD.From technical terms to general words第7页/共123页A.From specific to general 从特指到泛指ExamplePicture:originally:a painting or drawing第8页/共123页The present meaninga photograph a cinematic picturean x-ray picture a TV picturea radio-telescope pictureany picture第9页/共123页More ExamplesrubbishOriginally:rubbl
7、e(碎石）Now:anything worthless第10页/共123页B.From proper nouns to common nounsAntonomasia 换称the use of a proper noun to convey a general idea 第11页/共123页Sandwich:It now denotes a popular fast food.It originates from John Montague,Fourth earl of Sandwich in 18th-century England.He was so fond of gambling th
8、at he often forgot his meals.He often ordered slices of bread with thick pieces of roast beef stuffed between them be brought to him so he could eat while playing.Later,people used his name to refer to all similar food.第12页/共123页Greek Myth:a king punished for his misdeeds by having to stand in water
9、that recedes when he tries to drink itand under fruit that moves awayas he reaches for it.Tantalus Tantalize 挑逗第13页/共123页Argus百眼巨人Greek myth:a giant with 100 eyes.After he was killed,hiseyes were transferred to the Peacocks tailArgus-eyed:keen-sighted;Observant明察秋毫的Example:We have decided it is impo
10、ssible to cheat when that Argus-eyed pro-fessor gives anexam第14页/共123页Narcissus水仙花Narcissus:Greek myth:a beautiful youth who fell in love with his ref-lection in a pool,hence the word:narcissism and the meaning:an interest in or admiration for oneself.第15页/共123页 Munchausen说大话的人He was a German soldie
11、r.After his retirement from his service in the Russian Army against the T u r k s,h e t o l d exaggerated stories of his campaigning adventures,thus the meaning:a person who boasts;exaggerated.第16页/共123页Pinchbeck冒牌货Christopher Pinchbeck was an British jeweler.He invented an alloy of copper,zinc form
12、erly used for cheap jewelery,hence the meaning:specious似是而非的 and spurious伪造的 goods.第17页/共123页FrankensteinFrankenstein is a character in the novel written by famous British woman writer Mary W.Shelley.He is a medical researcher,who created a robot monster,brought it to life and finally was killed by
13、the monster.第18页/共123页“Watergate”源指美国华盛顿特区综合大厦。1972年6月17日夜间，共和党争取总统连任委员会有关人员潜入大厦内民主党全国委员会总部而被捕，暴露了共和党政府在总统竞选中的非法活动，导致美国历史上首次总统辞职，现泛指“丑闻”。专有名词普通化与特定的历史事件有关：第19页/共123页 Louis Pasteur is a French chemist and biologist.His researches showing that the fermentation发酵 of milk and wine was due to the multipl
14、ication of bacteria and other microorganisms led to the discovery of the role of microorganism in human and animal disease.From these findings he developed immunization by inoculation免疫接种 of attenuated microbes微生物,and the process of pasteurization巴氏消毒法.专有名词普通话与特定的科技事件有关：第20页/共123页Pasteurization is a
15、 process which renders milk free of disease-producing bacteria and help to prevent it from spoiling without destroying the vitamins or changing the taste.It involves heating the milk to 1450-168F for 30 minutes.To pasteurize is to sterilize by pasteurization.第21页/共123页James Watt（瓦特）is a Scottish eng
16、ineer who made fundamental improvements to the Newcomen steam engine,leading to the widespread use of steam power in mines,factories etc.In partnership with Mathew Boulton,Watt built may engines at their foundry铸造车间 in Birmingham.The unit of power is named after him.第22页/共123页Words of this group als
17、o include ampere（安 培）,farad（法 拉）,ohm（欧姆）,volt（伏特）,watt（瓦特）from French physicist Ampere,British physicist Faraday,German physicist Ohm,Italian physicist Volta and Scottish inventor Watt respectively第23页/共123页 这类专有名词常为商标专有名。Walkman原来是Sony公司“随身听”的注册商标，在激烈的商业活动竞争中脱颖而出成为名牌。由于它家喻户晓，使它在人们心目中失去了一种专利商标，被用户作为
18、“随身听”的代名词去泛指一切“随身听”产品。与经济活动有关：第24页/共123页Words like nylon（尼龙）,orlon（奥纶）,dacron（涤纶）,rayon（人造丝）were originally tradenames and are now used to denote the four types of fabric.第25页/共123页生活节奏的加快，生活竞争的加剧使得体育专业术语大量被用于日常生活之中：与体育活动有关：第26页/共123页cover the bases:补垒:可泛指“仔细考虑问题、建议、事情等每一个细节以确保万无一失”。be out in left f
19、ield:棒球术语：左外场，位于外场防卫位置，语义泛化后指：“失去理智的”，“错误的”等。第27页/共123页 strike out:棒球术语，“三击未中，击球员出局”，现可指“努力失败”。load the bases:跑满垒：形容“任务即将被完成”。hit a home run:本垒打：泛指“取 得巨大成功”。第28页/共123页throw a curve ball:打出曲线球，这种球在接手接球一刹那会拐弯飞出：形容“采用欺骗手段使某人大吃一惊”。call the play:作裁判：形容“承担有决定权的职责”。第29页/共123页run with it:带球向得分点跑去：形容“开始实施一个计
20、划或开始着手某个事务”等。第30页/共123页touchdown:攻方持球触地，按照规定，攻方在对方端区持球触地可得6分，现在可用来形容“辉煌的成就”。第31页/共123页 Svengali(斯文加利)系英语小说家George du Maurier所著小说Trilby中的音乐 家。He is a person who controls anothers mind,usually with sinister intentions.专有名词充当普通动词，例如：He svengalied us into accepting his opinions.他采用斯文加利式的骗术使我们接受了他的观点。第32
21、页/共123页 The United States is raising a Frankenstein by providing hardware to that country.（美国向那个国家提供军事武器，到头来只会作法自毙。）Frankenstein是英国作家 Mary Wollstonecraft-Shelley 于1818年所著小说中的生理学研究专家。他创造了一个怪物，结果被这个怪物所毁灭。英语普通化专有名词的常见特征：专有名词充当普通名词使用，例如：第33页/共123页Gerrymander:to divide the constituencies（选区）of a voting a
22、rea so as to give one party an unfair advantage;to manipulate or adapt to ones advantage.专有名词与普通名词拼缀构成动词，例如：Californias Republican legislature gerrymandered（为己党利益擅改选区）the 26thto make it overwhelmingly Democratic and turn four adjoining districts into Republican strongholds.第34页/共123页“Gerrymander”com
23、es from Elbridge Gerry,a U.S.politician+(sala)mander(蝾螈；）;from the salamander-like outline of an electoral district reshaped for political purposes while Gerry was governor of Massachusetts第35页/共123页Hooverize:vt 节约（粮食等）由Hoover+ize 派生而来。专有名词与动词词缀连用构成派生动词?第36页/共123页Herbert Clark Hoover was a U.s.State
24、sman,31st president of the U.S.He organized relief for Europe during and after World War I.As president he made great efforts to reduce government expenses and lost favour after his failure to alleviate the effects of the Depression.第37页/共123页When proper nouns are commonized,many of them have lost t
25、heir original identity:the initial letter may not be capitalized as already shown;these words can take suffixes ic,ian,-al,-ist,-ese,-ish,-esque to form different words.第38页/共123页这类专有名词转为普通动词在科技英语中尤为常见，尤其是商品名牌商标的动词化，例如：“Hoover”,“Whiteout”,“Mace”are the trademarks respectively for a type of vacuum cl
26、eaner“真空吸尘器”，a white correcting fluid“白色涂改液”，and a liquid causing tears and nausea,used as a spray for riot control,“梅斯催泪毒气”第39页/共123页to mace demonstrators 向游行示威者喷射梅斯气to hoover a floor 用真空吸尘器吸地板上的灰尘to white out a mistake 用白色涂改液涂改错误第40页/共123页专有名词通过转类法转为普通形容词:Mickey Mouse:the name of a cartoon charact
27、er created by Walter Disney,known for his simple-minded attitudes,hence the meaning:ineffective,trivial and insignificant第41页/共123页例如：Two days for a 226-mile race is Mickey Mouse.两天跑完226英里的赛程是轻而易举的事。a mickey mouse college course 一门容易学的大学课程第42页/共123页专有名词的普通化现象在现代英语中层出不穷。这种普通化现象在经济领域会带来一系列的司法纠纷。在政治领域也
28、会带来一些消极的后果。第43页/共123页在美国，“Coke”,“Kleenex”（可丽舒面巾纸）,“Xerox”（施乐影印）,“Jell-o”（吉露果冻）“Scotch Tape（透明胶封口）”为阻止商标名的普通化先后诉诸法庭，如果说以上商标名通过法律途径在一定的程度上保护了自己的产品名的“专有”。第44页/共123页正因如此，越来越多的厂家开始在商标名的设计上标新立异。从语言形式上试图杜绝自己商品名的语义泛化现象。从商标名的专有名词普通化分析结果来看，有以下三种情况：第45页/共123页1）专有名词商标名具有浓厚的描绘性特征：Dry Ice:干冰，固态二氧化碳Shredded Wheat:
29、脆麦面条Mineral Oil:矿物油Corn Flakes:玉米片第46页/共123页2）专有名词具有半描绘性特征：Cellophane:塞璐玢；玻璃纸Escalator:电梯Zipper:拉链 第47页/共123页节约原则是指人们用商标名作为产品的代名词。人们之所以这样做是因为商标名相对于产品名，前者可能更简便，且易上口。长此以往，导致商标名失去专有名词特征。3）节约原则第48页/共123页如：Sanka牌的“decaffeinated（脱去咖啡因的）coffee”;Teflon牌的“Polytetrafluoroethylene 聚四氟乙烯coating”。商标名“Sanka”以及“Te
30、flon”在语符系统上比较简单，前者代替后者不可避免第49页/共123页为了防止专有名词普通化，生产厂家采取了一系列措施保护商标名的专一性。一是在拼写上采取反常规形式，在不该大写的地方使用大写形式，如：TelePrompter(电子提词机)；第50页/共123页二是使其商标名作为专有形容词使用，如：Jell-o gelatin(果冻胶)。第51页/共123页这些措施也很难有效保护这些专有名词的普通化趋势，因为语言使用者只要对这些专有名词稍加改动便可以使它们至少在形式上类似普通词。现在，字典已收入了“teleprompter提词装置”以及“jello凝胶物”便是很好的例子。第52页/共123页C
31、.From Concrete to AbstractGrasp抓住、掌握Place 广场、地位Thing 集会、第53页/共123页Matter:originally meant timber,the hard part of a treeNow it has a lot of abstract meanings.第54页/共123页1)The world is made of matter.Substance(s)of which the physical thing is made2)The matter in your essay is good.Material for thought
32、 or expression第55页/共123页3)This is a matter I know little about.Something in which attention is givenIt made no matter to him that his brother lost all his money.Of importance第56页/共123页D.From technical terms to general words:Countdown:the counting aloud of numbers in reverse order before sth.happens,
33、esp.Before a spacecraft is launched.第57页/共123页Now:emergency situation十分危急的情况；行将摊牌的局面That would lead to a countdown in Cambodia柬埔寨.第58页/共123页Feedback:it occurs in a machine or system when part of the power,sound or i n f o r m a t i o n produced goes back into the machine or system.第59页/共123页Now:resp
34、onseThe reader feedback was g e n e r a l l y favourable.第60页/共123页Fallout:the radiation that affects a place after a nuclear explosion:放射性尘埃Now:consequenceHe predicted that the fallout from Watergate would hit both parties.第61页/共123页Fire storm:It takes place when a bomb explodes;strong winds rush i
35、nto it to take the place of the hot air that is rising,causing the blaze to burn uncontrollably.核弹引起的大火暴Now:strong reaction第62页/共123页The revelations about the CIAs activities in Chile broke in the press just as the fire storm over the Nixon pardon put an abrupt end to Congresss honey-moon with Geral
36、d ford.报界揭发了中央情报局在智利的活动，与此同时，赦免尼克松所引起的强烈反应使得国会同杰拉德。福特的蜜月猝然终止。第63页/共123页Restriction of Meaning第64页/共123页 Examples liquorOld MeaningSpecialized meaningliquidalcoholic drink第65页/共123页 example meatOld MeaningSpecialized Meaning foodFlesh of animals第66页/共123页wordOld meaningSpecializationdiseasediscomfort
37、illnesspoisondrinkPoisonous drinkwifewoman married womanaccidenteventunlucky eventgirlA childA female child第67页/共123页wordOld meaningSpecializationstarvedieDie of hungerstinkAny smellBad smellsuccessResult a good resultcorpsea human oranimal body living or deada dead bodyesp.of a human being第68页/共123
38、页现代英语中把日常生活用语转用到科技方面，这也是词义缩小的一种现象。第69页/共123页A clean room 和 a white room均为日常生活用语，现指用于精密零件制造的“绝尘室”“A clean room”or“a white room”,increasingly becomes shop talk.清洁室或称白室正日益变成专家们的行话。第70页/共123页 Elevation of MeaningWords often rise from a humble beginning to a position of greater importance.This change is
39、called elevation of meaning.第71页/共123页Pioneer:foot soldier who cleared the way for any army by falling trees,etc.A person who goes before,preparing the way for others,as a scientist doing exploratory work第72页/共123页Fond:foolishTender and affectionate第73页/共123页ministervOld:an attendantvNew:a person at
40、 the head of a department of a state.第74页/共123页 marshallOriginally:A horse tenderPresent Meaning:Officer of highest rank第75页/共123页 craftsmanOld:a person good at cheatingNow:a man who does a skilled job,usu,with hands第76页/共123页 shrewdOld meaning:wicked;maliciousNow:keen-witted;clever or sharp in prac
41、tical affairs第77页/共123页nimblevOld meaning:quick at stealingvpresent meaning:quick of comprehension第78页/共123页 见125页 Elevation of Meaning第79页/共123页 Degradation of meaningWords with a commendatory meaning may become ones with a derogatory sense.This is called degradation of meaning or deterioration第80页
42、/共123页Four Kinds of Degradation of MeaningA.A word falls into disrepute because of social prejudice第81页/共123页ExampleVillain old meaning:a farmerpresent Meaning:a man guilty of evil deeds第82页/共123页 clownOld meaning:a peasantpresent Meaning:a man who is clumsy and behaves stupidly第83页/共123页wenchvOld m
43、eaning:a country girlvpresent meaning:a girl of loose character第84页/共123页 boorOld meaning:a farmhandpresent meaning:one who is rough,impolite and clumsy第85页/共123页churlvOld meaning:a farmhandvpresent meaning:one who is rude and unfriendly第86页/共123页B.A word becomes less respectable because of euphemis
44、m Examples 见127页第87页/共123页C.Middle terms which are neutral in meaning and take on favorable or unfavorable meaning according to context Examples见128页第88页/共123页Fortune,is a middle term,because it may be either good or bad but the adjective fortunate has a positive value.So with the word luck.The word
45、 refers to good or bad luck,especially to good luck.But the adjective lucky only denotes“having or bringing good luck”.第89页/共123页D.Sometimes a word shows deterioration in some of its uses,but maintain itself in others.executeTo kill sb.as a lawful punishmentTo carry out an order,a plan,a piece of wo
46、rk第90页/共123页4-2-3Semantic Changes from the Literal Use of words to Their Figurative Use 1.Metaphor第91页/共123页W e k n o w t h a t words are used in two ways:literally and figuratively.When used literally,they have their natural and usual meaning.When used figuratively,t h e y h a v e a suggested meani
47、ng.!第92页/共123页A simile is a figure of speech which makes a comparison between two unlike elements,having at least one point of resemblance in appearance,quality,action or effect.第93页/共123页A metaphor,like a simile,also makes a comparison between two unlike elements,but unlike a simile,this comparison
48、 is implied rather than stated.Metaphor?第94页/共123页There are three major groups of metaphors according to function and character:A.Anthropomorphic metaphorsB.Animal metaphorsC.Synaesthetic metaphors第95页/共123页A.Anthropomorphic metaphorsMany inanimate o b j e c t s a r e compared to the parts of the hu
49、man body.第96页/共123页the eye of a needle 针眼the eye of a potato马铃薯的芽眼the eye of the hurricane 风眼the eye of a flower 花心the eye of a peacocks tail孔雀翎斑the eye of the revolution 革命中心第97页/共123页参见p.32 for More Examples第98页/共123页 B.Animal metaphorsA great many inanimate objects,including various instruments,m
50、achines and parts of machines are called after an animal.第99页/共123页Cat-o-nine-tails;九尾鞭；香蒲Cat-ice:thin ice unsupported by water 薄冰Catmint or catnip 猫薄荷Catlap:slops,tea,etc.稀薄饮料第100页/共123页Another large group of animal names can be transferred into words indicating persons.第101页/共123页An ass:a stupid f