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1、BASICPRINCIPLESINOCCUPATIONALHYGIENE职业卫生基本原则职业卫生基本原则 Day 2第2天Physical States物理状态 汽汽化化液液化化液体液体气体气体固体固体凝固凝固熔化熔化凝华凝华升华升华Physical States物理状态 Vapour-the gaseous state of a substance which is liquid at 25C and 760 mm Hg(STP).水蒸汽水蒸汽在25和760毫米汞柱（STP）条件下为液体形式的物质的气态。Mist-liquid particles,large size generally p
2、roduced by bubbling,splashing or boiling of a liquid.雾雾液体颗粒，尺寸较大，由液体起泡、飞溅或煮沸形成。Fume-Solid particles produced by condensation from a liquid or a reaction between two gases.The particle size of a fume 1 micron(m)diameter anything larger is considered a dust particle.悬浮粒液体冷凝或气体反应所产生的固体颗粒。直径小于1微米（m）的粒子均
3、为尘埃粒子。Dust-particles of solid material in the broad size range of 1 micron to 1 millimetre diameter.Anything of a larger particle size is considered to be grit and will be too heavy to remain airborne.灰尘固体材料颗粒，直径大小在1微米至1毫米之间。超出此方位的颗粒则为砂砾，因其重量过大，故无法漂浮在空气中。Aerosol-general term for the dispersions of s
4、olid or liquid particles of microscopic size in a gaseous medium e.g.fog,smoke etc.although commonly used to term fine liquid spray(e.g.aerosol can).浮质在气态介质（例如雾等）中微观尺寸的固体或液体颗粒分散质总称，虽然常指细密液体喷雾（如气雾罐）。Fibre Solid particulate which are long and thin i.e.have a high aspect ratio of length to breadth.纤维薄长
5、的固体颗粒物，纵横比高。SamplingTechniques取样技术取样技术 Appropriate for the purpose of the measurement.适于测量。Monitoring or Sampling-the use of valid and suitable techniques to derive a quantitative estimate of the Personal Exposure.“监控”或“取样”使用适当有效的技术，对单次接触进行定量预估。Only validated monitoring methods should be used.仅使用有效的
6、监测方法。HSE,NIOSH or Other National Standards HSE、NIOSH或其它的国家标准 May be legislation/country specific可以具有立法/国家特色的 Personal Exposures.单次接触Static Sampling.静态取样TypesofSampling取样类型取样类型Grab瞬时取样瞬时取样Shortterm短期取样短期取样Longterm长期取样长期取样Continuous连续取样连续取样GrabSampling瞬时取样瞬时取样浓浓度度时间时间ShortTermSampling短期取样短期取样浓浓度度时间时间L
7、ongTermSampling长期取样长期取样浓浓度度时间时间ContinuousMonitoring连续监测连续监测浓浓度度时间时间BulkSampling大量取样大量取样Taken and analysed for identification purposes.取样，进行内容物确认分析Not possible to relate the results to the airborne concentrations.不可能确定结果与空气中浓度之间的关系 Can be use to show spread of contamination.可用于显示污染的扩散。SamplingforPart
8、iculates微粒取样微粒取样 ParticleSize粒度粒度 Source:AdrianHirst资料来源：资料来源：AdrianHirst物理形态液体固体薄雾喷雾浮悬颗粒灰尘汽车尾气浮悬颗粒飞灰水泥粉尘 煤尘 花粉 大气粉尘 病毒 细菌石棉纤维(dia)石棉纤维(I)典型浮质和浮质粒子 粒径 可入肺颗粒物可吸入颗粒物粒径（um)Particlesize粒度粒度Total inhalable dust is the fraction of airborne material which enters the nose and mouth during breathing and is t
9、herefore liable to deposition anywhere in the respiratory tract.The particle sizes of total inhalable dust are up to 100 microns.可吸入总粉尘是气载物质的一部分，在呼吸过程中进入口鼻，容易在呼吸道中沉淀。可吸入总粉尘的颗粒大小最大100微米。Respirable dust is that fraction that penetrates to the deep lung where gas exchange takes place.The particle sizes
10、 of respirable dust are up to 10 microns.可吸入粉尘是进入气体交换的肺部深处的物质中的一部分。可吸入粉尘的颗粒大小最大10微米。ElementsofaSamplingSystem取样系统的要素取样系统的要素 Samplingtrain取样组合取样组合Pump泵Filter过滤器Sampling Head/Size Separator.取样头/粒度分离器 Source:SKC资料来源：SKC直径30毫米的呼吸区取样器泵Sampling Head/Size Seperator取样头/粒度分离器 IOM HeadTotal Inhalable DustIOM
11、取样头适用于可吸入总粉尘 CycloneRespirable Dust气旋式取样头 适用于可吸入粉尘 Source:SKC资料来源：SKCSamplesCollectedforWeldingFume焊接烟尘取样样本焊接烟尘取样样本 Source:Adrian Hirst资料来源：Adrian HirstCalculationofExposure接触限值计算接触限值计算Concentration(mg/m3)=Weight gain(mg).Flow rate(litre/min)x Time(min)浓度(mg/m3)=颗粒重量(mg).流速(litre/min)x 时间(min)OR 或 =
12、Weight gain(mg)Flow rate(litre/min)x Time(min)x 1000浓度(mg/m3)=颗粒重量(mg).流速(litre/min)x 时间(min)x 1000Weight(mass)Gain颗粒重量（质量）颗粒重量（质量）Source:WikimediaCommons资料来源：资料来源：维基资料共享维基资料共享Flowrate流速流速 Source:Adrian Hirst资料来源：Adrian HirstFlowrate流速流速Source:Adrian Hirst资料来源：Adrian HirstCalculationofExposure接触限值计算
13、接触限值计算 Concentration(mg/m3)=Weight gain(mg).Flow rate(litre/min)x Time(min)x 1000浓度(mg/m3)=颗粒重量(mg).流速(litre/min)x 时间(min)x 1000CalculationofPersonalExposure单次接触限值的计算单次接触限值的计算 Time of sample:09:12 to 15:45 取样时间：09:12到15:45 Flow Rate of Pump=2.0 litres per minute泵的流速为每分钟2.0升 Weight of Filter before e
14、xposure:25.82 mg接触前过滤的重量：25.82毫克 Weight of Filter after exposure:27.21 mg接触后过滤的重量：27.21毫克 What is the Personal Exposure?什么是单次接触限值？CalculationofPersonalExposure 单次接触限值的计算单次接触限值的计算 Time of sample:09:12 to 15:45=5 hours and 33 minutes=333 mins取样时间：09:12至15:45=5小时33分钟=333分钟 Sample Volume=Flow Rate of Pu
15、mp x Time样本体积=泵的流速x时间 Sample Volume=2.0 lpm x 333 mins样本体积=2.0 lpm x 333 minsSample Volume=666 litres样本体积=666 litresSample Volume=0.666 m3样本体积=0.666 m3Mass of material on filter=27.21 25.82 mg过滤器上的材料重量=27.21-25.82毫克 Mass of material on filter=1.39 mg过滤器上的材料重量=1.39毫克 Personal Exposure=1.39 mg/0.666 m
16、3单次接触限值=1.39 mg/0.666 m3Personal Exposure=2.09 mg/m3单次接触限值=2.09 mg/m3SamplingforGasesandVapours气体和蒸气的取样气体和蒸气的取样 ActiveSampling-i.e.by means of a mechanic/sampling pump method.主动取样主动取样通过机械/取样泵方法 Sorbent Tubes吸附管 PassiveSampling被动取样被动取样SorbentTubes吸附管吸附管 Source:Adrian Hirst资料来源：Adrian HirstPassiveSamp
17、lers被动取样器被动取样器Source:3M资料来源：3MSource:SKC资料来源：SKC领夹屏幕吸附剂加料口外盖解吸溶剂室扩散隔膜EquipmentusedforTakingGrabSample瞬时取样用设备瞬时取样用设备 Source:Drager资料来源：DragerIndicator Tubes指示管EquipmentusedforTakingGrabSample瞬时取样用设备瞬时取样用设备Sample Bags 取样袋Source:SKC来源：SKCEquipmentusedforTakingGrabSample瞬时取样用设备瞬时取样用设备EquipmentType设备 类型M
18、odeofOperation操作模式操作模式Advantages优点优点Disadvantages 缺点Detector Tubes检测管 Chemical reaction produces colour change 化学反应导致颜色变化Instant result,easy to use结果立即可见，使用方便 Not very accurate,often tubes are non-specific精度低、仅适用于常规管道 Gas sampling bags,syringes and containers 气体取样袋、注射器和容器 Pumps used to fill a bag or
19、 container to be sent for analysis泵将气体充入取样袋或取样器中，随后进行分析 Simple,light,cheap 简单、重量轻、价格便宜 No concentration effect,losses can occur.Not instant.无集聚效果，可能出现损耗，不能即时显示。Paper tapes/impregnated filters试纸/浸入式滤纸 Air drawn through paper impregnated with chemical reagents producing a colour change将试纸浸入化学试剂，出现颜色变化
20、，以此来吸入空气 Direct reading,can be used for other sampling techniques 直接读取，也适用其它取样技术 Stain can fade.Personal samplers bulky.Non-specific染色位置会褪色、个人取样器，笨重，无专业性。Electrochemical Detectors电化学检测器 Substance interacts with electrochemical detector cell 用电化学检测器检测物质 Direct reading,simple,lightweight.Also used for
21、 other sampling techniques直接读取、简单、轻便。也适用其它取样技术。Expensive,calibration required,non-specific价格昂贵，需要校准，无专业性。Gold Film Mercury Vapour Analyser金膜汞分析仪Mercury vapour increases resistance of gold film sensor汞蒸气会增加金膜传感器的电阻 Simple,lightweight specific简单，重量轻、专业Expensive,requires regular cleaning and calibratio
22、n 价格昂贵，需要定期清洗和校准 EquipmentusedfortakingshortandlongtermSamples短期和长期取样用设备短期和长期取样用设备Source:SKC资料来源：SKCSource:3M资料来源：3MEquipmentusedfortakingshortandlongtermSamples短期和长期取样用设备短期和长期取样用设备EquipmentType设备类型设备类型ModeofOperation操作模式操作模式Advantages优点优点Disadvantages 缺点Pumped samplers with solid sorbent traps e.g.
23、charcoal or tenax 泵送取样器，配置有固体吸附剂陷阱，例如木炭或苯基对苯醚Air is drawn through a tube on which the substances of interest are collected 空气通过物质采集管道吸入 Accurate,reliable,used in many official methods精度高、可靠性高，被许多正式方法采用 Needs complex analysis systems,result not instant.需要复杂的分析系统，结果不能即时产生。Diffusive Samplers扩散式取样器Conta
24、minant diffuses through a membrane onto a sorbent bed of filter material.污染物通过过滤材料吸附剂床上的膜出现扩散 Small,robust,cheap,acceptable to operators 体积小，功能强大，价格便宜，受操作人员喜爱 May require validation in field conditions.Needs complex analysis systems.Result not instant.需要现场通风，需要复杂的分析系统，结果不能即时产生。Bubblers/Impingers 气泡型
25、/冲击式取样器Air is bubbled through a solvent or reactive solution空气通过溶剂或反应溶液形成气泡 Solution obtained can be analysed directly.获取溶液时可直接进行分析。Wearer carries a glass vial.Devices bulky,losses can occur 携带者还需要携带玻璃小瓶，设备笨重，会有损耗。EquipmentusedforcontinuousSampling连续取样用设备连续取样用设备 SKCRealTimeDustMonitorSKC实时粉尘监测仪实时粉尘监
26、测仪MiniRAE3000PortablePID迷你迷你RAE3000便携式便携式PIDEquipmentusedforcontinuousSampling连续取样用设备连续取样用设备 EquipmentType设备类型设备类型ModeofOperation操作模式操作模式Advantages优点优点Disadvantages 缺点Flame Ionisatione.g.organic vapouranalyser(OVA)ortotal vapouranalyser(TVA)火焰电离检测器，例如有机蒸汽检测仪（OVA）或总蒸汽检测仪Combustion of organics in an a
27、ir/hydrogen flame produces ions sensed by electrodes and converted into a voltage signal 有机物在空气/氢火焰中燃烧，产生离子电极感应离子，转换成电压信号PortableUsually intrinsicallySafe便携式，通常是本质安全型Limited on range and specificity of contaminants可检测的污染物范围和特征有限Infrared e.g.Miran Analyser红外线，例如米朗分析仪Absorption of IR radiation used to
28、 measure the concentration of substance 吸收红外线，用于测量物质浓度Semi-portable,Limited in the compounds it can detect 半移动式，可检测组成专业Bulky,non-intrinsically safe笨重，非本质安全型Ultraviolet紫外线Absorbance of ultraviolet 吸收紫外线Portable 便携式Interferences,calibration,not intrinsically safe有干扰，需校准，非本质安全型FixedPositionSampling固定位置
29、取样固定位置取样 Normally personal samples taken.通常情况下，需要个人进行取样。Fixed Position Samples useful to固定位置样本好处：Provide information about contamination from fixed sources 提供有关固定源的污染物信息 Assess effectiveness of control measures e.g.local exhaust ventilation.评估控制措施的有效性，例如局部排风。Care has to be exercised in interpreting
30、the results.说明结果时应小心谨慎。Fixed position samples cannot be used to establish personal exposures or be compared to hygiene standards.固定位置样本不能用于确定单次接触限值，不能与卫生标准相比。SamplingMethods取样方法取样方法 Validated methods of sampling and analysis should be used e.g.HSE,NIOSH应使用通过验证的取样和分析方法，如HSE、NIOSH National Standards m
31、ay specify particular methods.国家标准可能会指定相关方法。SamplingStrategies取样策略取样策略 Most sampling done to assess personal exposure,but also done to:取样主要用于评估单次接触限值，但也可以用于Identification of airborne contaminants识别气载污染物 Identify leaks and spillages确定是否有泄露和溢漏 Assessment of the Effectiveness of Control Measures对控制措施的有
32、效性进行评估Strategy employed needs to be varied depending upon the aims of the survey.根据勘测目的采用取样策略。SamplingRecords取样记录取样记录Full details of the sampling performed should be recorded and retained.应记录和保持详细的取样信息。When the monitoring was done何时进行监测？Who and where was monitored何人和何地进行监测？Details of the equipment u
33、sed使用设备详情 The operations in progress at the time of the survey勘测时的操作 In most countries records of monitoring should be available to employees or their representatives.在大多数国家，规定应向员工或其代表提供监测记录。SampleHandling样本处理样本处理Inappropriate handling and transport of sampled materials may give rise to losses or co
34、ntamination.样本运输和处理不当可能会导致损耗或污染。The type of container used使用容器的类型 Temperature温度 Sunlight阳光Time before analysis分析前的时间Contamination.污染Advice can usually be obtained from the laboratory undertaking the analysis.实施分析的实验室通常会提供建议。CollectedSampleforAnalysis采集样本，实施分析采集样本，实施分析MethodsofAnalysis分析方法分析方法There a
35、re numerous analytical techniques available for the analysis of airborne contaminants.目前有多种可以对气载污染物进行分析的方法。OrganicVapours-gas chromatograph(GC)complete with a flame ionisation detection(FID).有机蒸汽气相色谱仪（GC），和火焰离子化检测器（FID）。InorganicGases-GC/thermal conductivity methods,photometric and microcoulometry,c
36、hemiluminescence.无机气体气相色谱/导热系数方法、光度计和微库仑分析法、化学发光法。OrganicParticulateMatter-high pressure liquid chromatography(HPLC),infra-red(IR)or ultraviolet(UV)spectrometery.有机颗粒物有机颗粒物高压液相色谱（HPLC）、红外（IR）或紫外（UV）光谱分析。MetalsandtheirCompounds ICP,Atomic Absorption(AA).金属及其化合物ICP，原子吸收（AA）。MineralDusts Microscopy,gravimetery,x-ray diffraction.矿物粉尘显微镜、比重计、射线衍射。Calibration and Quality Control 校准和质量控制 Schemes-WASP or RICE(both UK)or PAT(US).标准 WASP 或RICE（英国）或PAT（美国）。Accreditation-UKAS(UK)or NATA(Australia).认证 UKAS（英国）或NATA（澳大利亚）。