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1、ExercisesOutline the types of carbonate factory and why there are differences between the sediments that can be produced in them.热带工厂(tropicalfactory)：生物自养、冷水工厂(cool-waterfactory):非自养、泥丘 工厂(mud-mound factory)：生物诱导Why does erosion take place in carbonate factories?机械侵蚀：海浪冲刷化学侵蚀：水体碳酸盐不饱和生物侵蚀：微生物侵蚀What
2、 are the major processes of diagenesis in carbonate successions and why do they occur?找不到What are the different types of coral reef? Outline the characteristics of the sediment successions that are produced in such environments.岸礁(Fringing reef):一个礁，或者直接连接到海岸或边界，这中间有一个浅沟或泻湖(图 18.14 和图 18,15) o屏障礁(Ba
3、rrier reef):一个由一个大陆或一个深泻湖分开的珊瑚礁，如澳大利亚的大堡礁 (图18.16和图18.17)。在大堡礁相关就像海滩和泻湖环境(图18.18)。补丁礁(Patch reef):一个孤立的，通常圆形礁，通常在一个泻湖或海湾。裙礁(Apron reef:):类似于岸礁短礁，但更多的倾斜，向下延伸出来的，从一个点或半岛海 LJ-J序。银行(Bank reef):轮廓线或半圆形礁。比礁礁大。带状礁(Ribbon reef):长，狭窄，有点绕礁，环礁泻湖，通常与。环礁礁(Atoll reef:):更多或更少的循环或连续的堡礁一路延伸在没有中央岛泻湖。台礁(Table reef):一个
4、孤立的礁，临近环礁类型，但没有一个泻湖。沉积特点：Almost pure carbonate of very variable grain size. Most diagnostic are masses or patches of boundstone or framestone, internal cavities with fillings of cement or sediment, multiple generations of construction, encrustation and boring and destruction.1. Describe the factors
5、that can affect the solubility of carbonates.最主要：溶液中二氧化碳浓度分压其他：岩石中的水通量、气候干旱或湿润、特定矿物质。2. What is the process of condensation corrosion? Explain the role it plays in the formation of rohrenkarren.找不到Explain the various origins of dolines in karst areas.Solutional dolines (溶蚀漏斗)：水溶液顺节理裂缝造成的溶蚀Uvulas (悬雍
6、垂)：两个塌坑联通Collapse dolines (塌陷漏斗):坍塌联通地下水系DOUNESHow do caves form in the phreatic zone and what are the characteristics of such caves? 找不到对应的3. Explain how geological controls influence cave development.岩性：会产生结构构造透水性等的差异，如页岩比灰岩更容易被水侵蚀。岩层的产状：影响洞穴的形态Why are there so many different types of cave speleot
7、hem?水流、CO2、矿物质等原句是这样的：The hypotheses as to how they form are almost as varied as the forms themselves (Figure 18.60).1. Although the process is continuous, what stages can be recognized in the transformation of snow to glacier ice?新降雪-陈雪：97%空气-密度0.3陈雪t粒雪：-密度0.4-0.55,粒径0.7mm粒雪-冰川冰：透气性透水性二0,密度0.8-0.85
8、,埋藏深度30m冰由于自身重力缓慢塑性变形：密度0.89-09纯冰。917但很少能到达。2. How can the mass balance of a glacier be measured?直接方法(Direct methods):测定冰面上特定点的净余额，估算整体。摄影测量方法(Photogrammetricmethods):通过比拟几年间的地图影像差异，推断冰 川质量变化。水文方法(Hydrological methods) ： Bn=P-R-E,净余额=降水-流入盆地的量-蒸发。3. What are the morphological characteristics of surg
9、ing glaciers?surging glaciers可以被定义为周期性的(大约15-100年或更多)突然、短期、大尺度 的冰川运动爆发，是非活动期冰川运动速率的10-100倍Evaluate the view that changes in the subglacial hydrological regime seem to be a prerequisite for surges to occur.P532 (页面 P514)What are the variables that control the efficiency of glacial erosion? 摩擦力：重力压迫冰和
10、基岩摩擦，更大的摩擦力带来更大的侵蚀速率 碎屑速度：碎屑在基岩上移动的速度。越快越磨损 冰层内杂物浓度：浓度越高越磨损碎屑更新速度：不断的磨蚀使冰层和基岩间碎屑增加，越多越磨损。取决于冰层和基岩 的相对硬度碎屑和基岩的相对硬度：如果碎屑比基岩硬度低，那么磨蚀的是碎屑而不是基岩。其他因素：基岩渗透性；粘土矿物多少；碎屑磨圆程度；碎屑大小。4. Compare and contrast the characteristics of supraglacially- and subglacially-transported debris.底磺：其块石和砂粒在运动过程中常相互或与冰床发生摩擦，故在冰磺岩
11、块和砂粒的表 面有擦痕。这种冰磺物一般含泥质较多，胶结较紧实，磨圆度较好。底磺中小达漂砾的长轴 总是顺着冰川运动方向排列，测量底硬中的漂砾方位是寻找冰磺来源地和冰磺砂矿的基本方 法。表磺：一般是越向冰川下游，表磺覆盖越厚，面积也越大。由于冰磺覆盖厚度不同而使 下覆冰体产生差异消融，进而导致冰面起伏不平，形成表磺丘陵。表磺在随冰川运动过程中 少有互相摩擦的现象，多为有棱角的大小砾石，且少擦痕。5. How are glaciolacustrine deep-water silts and clays formed? 找不到Describe the characteristics of esker
12、 landforms and sediments that might indicate a subglacial origin.特征：Eskers are a feature of the wet-based portion of continental ice sheets and valley glaciers. They are linear, sinuous ridges of varying length and height, composed of stratified, glaciofluvial sediments. They form in a variety of di
13、fferent ways, but extensive eskers occur beneath continental ice sheets. These ridges can in some cases extend for hundreds of kilometres, but they are never wider than 700m, nor more than around 100m high.6. Evaluate the role of glacial thrusting in the formation of moraines.Glacier iceSole thrustS
14、ole thrustA: Advancing glacier at Neoglacial limit Thrust propagation into proglacial areaCliff-fall debrisSole thrustGlaciofluvialB： Present-day receding glacier outwash Debris-bearing thrusts Moraine mound/ with recumbent foldingGlacier iceFluvial sand and gravelDiamoction thrust slices(b)囱 Folded
15、 basal debris(a)Figure 20.77 The role of thrusting and landform development in the formation of moraine mounds: (a) during advance; (b) during retreat, (c) Thrusts in Kongsvegen ice front, Kongsfjord, Spitsbergen. (Photo courtesy of Mike Hambrey)F7| Diamicton little-affected by thrusting 口 BedrockDescribe the characteristic glaciovolcanic facies that can occur and explain the differences between the formations of tindar and tuyas.Tindar ：线性火山脊Tuyas ：平顶丘具体内容在P577 （书本