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1、CHAPTER 2大气结构和成分What is the difference between weather and climate?天气是一定区域短时段内的大气状态(如冷暖、风雨、干湿、阴晴等)及其变化的总称气候是长时间内气象要素和天气现象的平均或统计状态,时间尺度为月、季、年、数年到 数百年以上2. Draw a simple diagram to show the structure of the atmosphere.对流层12 km -直流层48 km -中间层80 km -热层While nitrogen and oxygen make up around 99% of the E
2、arths atmosphere by volume, list five other variable gases that you might expect to find in a sample of air.Ar, H2, CO2, CH4, O3, NO2Ozone is a gas found in its highest concentrations in the stratosphere. Discuss why holes in the ozone layer have been discovered and what has been done to limit its d
3、estruction.1979年,NASA开始监测南极的臭氧水平,1984年发现南极臭氧层空洞,而之前在北极也 已经发现并报道了相似的情况。减少臭氧的破坏:禁止CFCs的排放Describe the main controls on the concentrations of carbon dioxide and methane in the Earths atmosphere.化石燃料的燃烧、呼吸作用、自然风化、光合作用What is the relationship between air pressure and altitude in the lower part of the tro
4、posphere?在近地表处递减快,近似线性递减;上升到一定高度下降变慢,近似对数递减。3. Draw a simple diagram showing isobars and mark the following with arrows: (i) pressure gradient force, (ii) Coriolis force, (iii) geostrophic wind, (iv) surface wind.画出同心圆式的等压线即可;科里奥利力北半球右偏,南半球左偏;由自传引起的风那么是东风;外表风那么是之前几种的叠加效果。4. What does Buys Ballofs la
5、w state?Buys Ballofs law states that in the northern hemisphere, if you stand with your back to the wind, he low-pressure area will be on your left. In other words, wind travels anticlockwise around low- pressure zones (Figure 5.14), and clockwise around high-pressure areas (anticyclones), in the no
6、rthern hemisphere.在北半球,风绕着低压做逆时针运动,其实就是科里奥利力的作用。5. Draw a quarter section of the Earth to illustrate the tricellular model of global atmospheric circulation.What are: (i) jet streams, (ii) Rossby waves?喷流,是围绕地球的一条强而窄的身速气流带带内或在低纬度地区都可能出现。罗斯比波如下列图。快速移动的上层大包的西风带。Jet axisI_/ Lw Cold polar air/Warm tropi
7、cal air(a) The jet stream begins to undulate/ /一 /Warm 广(a),集中在对流层顶或平流层,在中身纬西风-1、/11 ColdX/Warm(b)Rossby waves begin to form.,:1Intertropical Convergence ZoneJ)1syz/ttCHAPTER 6天气系统Define the term air mass and give examples of typical source regions.气团是具有相对均一温度和湿度的气体团。一般生成于赤道、北极、南极、热带。1. Draw a seque
8、nce of simple diagrams to show the formation of a weather front in plan view.A WEATHER FRONTI AL/TmPmSNSEA锋面。两种气团相遇的时候,由于温度和密度不同,不会很好地混合,就形成峰。Tm-热带海洋气团,Pm极地海洋气团Draw a cross-section of a typical mid-Atlantic depression, showing the location of: (i) warm front, (ii) cold front, (iii) rainfall, (iv) ci
9、rrus cloud, (v) stratus cloud, (vi) cumulus and cumulonimbus cloud.太平洋中部低压。THE WEATHER MAPObservations below taken along Section A-BDistance ahead of Warm front and behind Cold frontTime ahead and behind frontsUJQntlJvCLOUDS and PRECIPITATION Section at A-BFt. 40000300002000010000山HnsswHdFigure 6.7
10、(a) Plan view and cross-section through a typical north Atlantic depression showing the weather chart appearance, gradient and cloud patterns associated with the warm and cold front, and changes in pressure and temperature as the system passes, (b) Cross-section through a typical north Atlantic depr
11、ession showing changes in weather variables as the system passes. (Source: after (a) Langmuir, 1984 and fh) Wauch. 2000)5. What are the conditions that favour the development of tropical cyclones?热带气旋:在大西洋叫飓风,在太平洋西岸叫台风。在赤道附近南北纬8-15。的海洋上,一年内有至少一个月平均海洋温度高于27摄氏度。6. Name the scale used to classify hurri
12、canes.The Saffir-Simpson scale for hurricanesWhat is the difference between a hurricane and a tornado?尺度上存在根本性差异;形成机制不同。热带气旋(飓风、台风)是大尺度(km级),龙卷风是小尺度(m级)。龙卷风是一种 涡旋,空气绕轴快速旋转,受龙卷中心气压极度减小的吸引,近地面处几十米厚的薄层空气中,气流从四面八方吸入涡旋底部。并随机变为绕轴心向上的涡流。7. Describe the weather patterns associated with an anticyclone.反气旋:干燥
13、的、平静的、干净的天气夏季:炎热晴朗少雨,夜晚出现露水和雾。几天之后,热量累积,出现雷雨冬季:晴朗、少云,晚上形成霜雾。8. Draw a simple diagram to show the operation of land and sea breezes.海陆风。日夜1000mb1000mbV7777777777777777777/990mb_(b)(d)9. Explain how anabatic and katabatic winds blow.山谷风day (anabatic flow)night (katabatic flow)oeUies. coldunder一个是沿坡上升流
14、,一个是沿坡下降流。白天,山坡接受太阳光热较多,空气增温较多;与山顶相同高度的山谷上空,因离地较 远,空气增温较少。于是山坡上的暖空气不断膨胀上升,在山顶近地面形成低压,并在上 空从山坡流向谷地上空,谷地上空空气收缩下沉,在谷底近地面形成高压,谷底的空气那么 沿山坡向山顶补充,这样便在山坡与山谷之间形成一个热力环流。晚上山坡降温快。山谷离地面远,降温慢。10. What is the fohn effect?焚风效应:焚风效应是指当气流经过山脉时,沿迎风坡上升冷却,在所含水汽达饱和之前 按干绝热过程降温,达饱和后,按湿绝热直减率降温,并因发生降水而减少水分。过山后 空气沿背风坡下沉,按干绝热直
15、减率增温,故气流过山后的温度比山前同高度上的温度高 得多,湿度也显著减少。11. Explain how an urban microclimate differs from a rural one. 反射率(城市建筑物反射率低,吸收率高)、外表附着水能力、二氧化碳等气体排放(大气污染)、植物密度(低)、人口密度(高)等。CHAPTER 8海洋结构和循环模式Why is the Earths ocean circulation important for climate and future climate change?洋流将冷水从两极运送到赤道,将温暖的海水从赤道运送到两极,能够调节海洋上
16、方的空 气温度,进而影响到天气和气候Describe how scientists have been able to map the structure and topography of the oceans.深海钻探、回声探测、地震剖面、卫星测量What are ophiolites?蛇绿岩是由洋壳、深海沉积和局部上地幔共同组成的蛇绿岩套:深海沉积物-枕状熔岩-席状岩墙(玄武岩)-辉长岩-上地幔橄榄岩1. What is the average slope angle of the continental shelf compared to the continental slope?大
17、陆架:坡度小于1大陆坡:几度到几十度2. Describe what is meant by the term turbidity current9.浊流是密度较高的沉积物流,能够沿海底向下流动,通常穿过海底峡谷。单股浊流流至地 形相对平坦的海底时会减缓速度,发生沉积,可以形成由粗到细的沉积序列With reference to the temperature structure of oceans, what is a thermocline?温跃层是海洋温度随深度变化而发生急剧变化的层What are ocean gyres?海洋环流,受科氏力和风力共同作用形成的大型环状洋流。主要的海洋环
18、流有:印度洋环流、北大西洋环流、南大西洋环流、北太平洋环流、南太平 洋环流Describe what is meant by the term thermohaline circulation9.【参考古海洋和海洋地质,这一段我直接百度了】温盐环流是指依靠海水的温度和盐度驱动的全球洋流循环系统。以风力驱动的海面水流如 墨西哥湾暖流等将赤道的暖流带往北大西洋,暖流在高纬度处被冷却后下沉到海底,这些 高密度的水接着流入洋盆南下继续循环,一次温盐循环耗时大约1500年3. Describe the changes in sea level which have taken place since t
19、he middle of the last ice age 18 000 years ago.18000年前,处于末次冰期,大陆冰川发育,海平面比现在低120米Sea levels rise due to two main causes. What are they?海水热膨胀和陆地冰J11的融化CHAPTER 9大气演化和气候变化1. At the time of its formation 4.6 billion years ago, which two gases did the Earths early atmosphere contain?氨气&氨气After millions of
20、 years of volcanic outgassing, the atmospheres composition began to reflect the composition of volcanic gaseous emissions. Which two processes do scientists believe helped to achieve todays oxygen levels?(1 )水蒸气和二氧化碳在紫外线和闪电作用下的光解(2 )光合作用Until the recent industrial revolution in the last three centur
21、ies, CO2 was systematically removed from the atmosphere. Where was this CO2 being stored?有机体内和大洋沉积物中4. Describe the process of photolysis of water vapour and carbon dioxide.What are prokaryotes? What is their importance in terms of present-day oxygen levels?原核生物,是没有成形细胞核或线粒体的一类单细胞生物。原核生物可以进行光合作用, 它是
22、最原始的能够进行光合作用的生物,对增加大气中的氧气含量有着重要意义。5. What is the significance of the ancient banded rock, and red bed rock formations?使氧气含量在大气中无法持续增加,并存储在外表的岩石中,直至现今,地质历史中产生 的大多数氧气都存储在条带状铁建造和红层中。6. Once enough oxygen had accumulated in the atmosphere, it changed the rules for living organisms in which two ways?首先,它
23、为能够适应呼吸过程的生命形式提供了新的能量来源。其次,一旦有足够的氧气 积累在同温层,阳光的照射使它们产生臭氧,臭氧可以过滤掉有害的阳光紫外线照射,使 生物能够从海洋转移向陆地。7. What is the main effect that humans have had on the balance of atmospheric gases in the past millennium?人类从碳丰富的物质中获取化石燃料和建筑材料,向大气释放二氧化碳。CHAPTER 15Define weathering and describe the general characteristics of
24、the weathering of rocks and sediments.7. What is the relationship between the percentage of water vapour and temperature in the troposphere?对流层中的温度随高度的增加而降低【水蒸气没有找到】Outline the main sources of particulate matter in the Earths atmosphere.自然来源:海盐、风中携带的尘土、火山喷发、森林火灾人类来源:交通、工业排放、固体废物处理8. What causes acid
25、 rain?h2s, so2, no2, co2Give some examples of the effects of acid rain on ecosystems.河流和湖泊酸化,鱼类死亡足进有毒物质的释放,如A1 ,引发鱼类死亡;酸沉积消耗土 壤中基本的阳离子如Mg、K,使得营养物质减少,植物顶端枯萎并增强生物体受感染的几 率;酸雨严重的区域还会使得酸度耐受力高的生物逐渐占据主导地位,减低生态系统的多 样性CHPATER 3大气中的能量和地球热平衡 风化作用是地球外表最重要的过程之一,不仅包括岩石的分解和侵蚀,也是形成土壤和给 植物摄取的水提供养分的过程。实质是岩石上升到地表后遇到不平
26、衡界面,风化作用即是 再平衡的过程。风化作用被限制在相对狭小的范围内地壳,向下延伸可到潜水面,也就是空气和水最 低的界面。可分为物理、化学、生物风化。2. How can volumetric changes in a rock mass occur and what do they lead to?岩石的体积变化:大体上分为两种,一种是岩石层次的,一种是岩石内部裂隙、孔隙层次 的。岩石层次:载荷消失造成的岩石膨胀;温度的参与(见下列图)。surface of rackExpansion curves30Heat source activeZone of attempted changeZon
27、e of attempted changeFigure 15.4 (a) Temperature data from a rock block showing how internal temperatures continue to rise even as the surface cools after the removal of the heat source, (b) Development of tensile stresses during heating phase, (c) Development of compressive stresses during the cool
28、ing phase. (Sources: (b) and (c) Hall and Hall, 1991)Heat source removed, so cooling1020Time in minutesStrain energy developed空隙层次那么以下列图为例,以冰劈作用为主,岩石缝隙或者孔隙中的水结冰、溶解、再结冰使得岩石膨胀度呈现如下列图的周期性衰减的现象。SegregationCold external surface(ii) Controlled by pore-sizeg?言 造CBEO。2罢 UBZQJcnTemperature ()(cTemperature +v
29、eVolumetric expansionTime - Number of cycles is the key variable% Shattered rock3. Explain the physical processes associated with frost weathering.冰劈作用,本质是岩石孔隙中的水结冰、溶解、再结冰的反复过程造成的岩石破裂。4. What factors are thought to control salt weathering?对于所有风化作用来说,prevailing factors are岩石性质和气候条件。对于盐风化来说同样,(1 ) 一般在
30、潮湿的环境中;(2 )岩石条件;(3 )全球变暖也有可 能有关。5. What are the controls on clay mineral formation?水、气候、地貌、植被和时间等因素Explain how tafoni(侵蚀孑L) and cavernous weathering are thought to form.如下列图,在雨水的冲刷作用、垂向风的侵蚀作用下,在湿润半湿润的条件下,岩石出现小 孔之后不断溶解、扩大,最后形成侵蚀孔。6. How can rates of weathering be measured?Dated buildings, inscription
31、s and monuments; mass loss tablets; weathering rinds; surface roughness; and strength and solute levels.对建筑物、铭文、纪念碑的定年;质量损失碑(并不知道什么意思);风化壳;外表粗糙 度;强度和溶解水平。CHAPTER 16 斜坡Why does failure on a slope occur?为什么斜坡会发生破坏?我们可以从安全系数(FS )的概念来进行理解。安全系数=斜坡强度/作用在斜坡上的压 力。当FS1时,是斜坡式稳定的;当FS=1时,是临界稳定的;当FS1O随着时间流逝,FS减小
32、,斜坡变得不稳定。 造成FS减小有两种方式,一是减小斜坡强度,二是增大作用在斜坡上的压力。斜坡强度:风化(长期)越强,含水量(短期)越多,强度越低。斜坡压力:地震(短期)、加载(长期)等。1. What are the factors that define a rocks strength?决定岩石强度的因素是什么?(1 )完整岩石强度(2 )风化(3 )不连续间隔(4 )节理宽度(5 )断裂延续性(6)节理方位(7 )地下水出流(8 )沿着断裂的填充物How is cohesion in soils achieved? 土壤的内聚力是怎么来的?(1 )毛细张力(2 )电压(3 )胶结作用(
33、4 )超固结作用Outline the factors that can increase slope stress.简述可以增加斜坡压力的因素。分为两类:瞬时的和持续的。瞬时的:地面震动,例如由地震引起的震动。持续的压力增加:(1)横向支撑移除:斜坡基地的移除,通过自然的侵蚀或人工斜坡挖掘。河流侵蚀、海岸侵蚀等。(2 )下部支撑移除:下部层的移除导致地表失去支撑。(3 )斜坡加载:主要因素。降雪,水含量增加,植物(树木生长),建筑物(最有效)。(4 )横向压力:向外的压力。如植物根劈、冻融(即冰劈,水变冰的体积差)。5. What are the types of soil creep an
34、d how can they be recognized in the field?土层蠕动的类型有哪些?在野外要如何识别?(1 )持续的蠕动,常发生在各种破坏之前或之后。(2 )季节性蠕动,被季节性或气候变化触发。(3 )非季节性或随机蠕动,由根系或动物引发的颗粒随机位移。野外识别:倾斜位移的栅栏柱、弯曲的树干、往上坡的方向墙被土壤填充The classic qualitative indices of the presence of soil creep can be brieflyWALLS FILLED UP WITH SOIL ON UPSLOPE SIDE(a)What are t
35、he morphological characteristics of the various types of scree?不同类型的碎石堆的形态学特征是什么?(1)快速的落石输入和快速输出:平直的碎石堆,满足休止角(2 )慢速的落石输入和快速输出:平直的碎石堆斜坡,但不会保持很久(3)慢速的落石输入,没有输出:不满足休止角。基底有凹陷,在休止角以下有平直的 碎石堆斜坡,有粗糙的向下坡的分选。6. Outline the importance of lithology in slope development.简述在斜坡开展中岩性的重要性。岩性有两种影响斜坡开展的方式:(1 )作为斜坡强度和
36、侵蚀度的控制(2 )斜坡水文学的 控制。7. Summarize the main conclusions derived from numerical simulations of slope processes.总结斜坡过程数字模拟的主要结论。(1) 原始平直的斜坡剖面在总降雨量增加时会逐渐变凸。(2 )斜坡的基底凹陷也能是气候的函数。在半干旱地区,覆盖的碎石颗粒大小和斜坡角度有很强的对应关系,即坡越陡,碎石越粗 糙。随着斜坡基底上的碎石变小,斜坡坡度也变缓,出现明显的凹陷。在更湿润的地区,会出现更大范围的颗粒大小,颗粒大小和斜坡角度之间的关系更不显 著。最终,基底斜坡的凹陷也不那么突出。
37、10. Outline the importance of slopewash in modifying slope morphology.简述斜坡冲刷在改造斜坡形态中的重要性。(只找到了雨滴溅击的重要性,这两个可能是 一个意思? ?)在裸露的或局部被植被覆盖的斜坡上,雨滴对土壤和沉积物外表的直接影响可能会造成表 面颗粒的位移。当斜坡是近水平的,位移在所有方向上都可能发生,形成一个坑。但当斜 坡的角度增加时,重力使位移的颗粒趋于主要向坡下运动。所以,仅仅是雨滴激击就可能 改造斜坡的形态。雨滴溅击可能帮助移走外表的颗粒,因此促进它们被陆上水流带走。最开始,在外表的水 的移动造成了明显的侵蚀,但是
38、随着松散的外表物质被移走,侵蚀的速率下降。雨滴溅击的时期可能会带走新的物质,使地表水流的侵蚀速率重新上升。雨滴溅击还可能会影响土壤的外表渗透率。雨滴的直接影响是创造了一个小坑,随着土壤 的聚集失效,细粒度的颗粒可能会填充外表的孔隙创造一个外壳,阻止渗透的发生,可能 会使随后的径流速度增大。CHAPTER 17 河流How does energy loss occur in a river?1) skin resistance of the bed and banks (:可床和堤岸的阻力)internal distortion resistance caused by discrete bou
39、ndary features that set up secondary flowcirculations and eddies (由于大卵石等物体造成的二次流和涡旋)spill resistance, which occurs locally at particular places in open channels.(溢流阻力)1. How is sediment transported in rivers?bottom of grain creates a vertical pressure gradient由上升力(lift force)和拖曳力(drag force)共同作用 使沉积
40、物在水中搬运,当上升力缺乏而拖曳力足 够时,沉积物滚动(rolling);当上升力充足而拖曳 力缺乏时,沉积物悬停What are the main erosion processes in rivers?1 )磨蚀(corrasion )发生在河流获取沉积物的过程中,类似于用砂纸摩擦。2 )腐蚀(corrosion )岩石溶解在水中3 )摩擦(attrition )发生在沉积物颗粒搬运的过程中,沉积物互相碰撞变成更小的碎块。4 )水压力作用(hydraulic action )湍流的剪应力施加在河岸上,使得河岸开裂。2. After water falls on a hillslope, w
41、hat are the stages in the development of a river system on that slope?分水岭和溪流的顶端之间通常有一段较少受冲刷作用的区域。在水从斜坡上下流的初始阶 段,是假设干平行的溪流,它们的存在不稳定,可能在下一次暴雨来临前就消失。在第二个 阶段,如果一个溪流持续保持在一个位置,它就有可能继续开展,如果其中一条溪流长于 其他的,它就会将其他溪流吞并,从而产生更加强烈的侵蚀作用,最终形成主要溪流。这 种斜坡在倾斜度上的开展过程叫做cross-grading。6. How do river terraces(河流阶地)form? 17.9
42、.5 (我觉得书上没说清楚,参考wiki)主要通过构造运动或气候变化形成。当河流泛滥时,沉积物呈席状散布在泛滥平原,随后 当河流开始下切作用时,沉积物受到下切,原先的泛滥平原变成阶地突出在新河床上。地 面因构造运动的大面积抬升,或海平面的降低,都会引起河流强烈侵蚀河床底部,产生阶 地。7. )边滩(point bar )边滩是发育在曲流河凸岸的沉积,边滩的沉积物分选好,可以反映 河流搬运的沉积物的加积过程。由于河水流速在凹岸和凸岸不同,故沉积物在凹岸堆积。1 )牛姬湖(cutoff )在平原地区流淌的河流,河曲发育,随着流水对河面的冲刷与侵蚀, 河流愈来愈曲,最后导致河流自然截弯取直,河水由取
43、直部位径直流去,原来弯曲的河道 被废弃,形成湖泊,因这种湖泊的形状恰似牛粗,故称之为牛粒湖。2 )天然堤(natural levees )河道边的楔状沉积物。在比拟顺直或微弯的河段,如河床位置 相当长时期内变动不大,洪水期河水漫溢河岸,流速降低,搬运能力减弱,大量悬移物质 在岸边附近沉积下来,形成天然堤。1. The total amount, or flux, of energy entering the Earths atmosphere is measured in watts. Define watts.瓦特是功率的单位,即每单位时间内能产生的能量or单位时间做的功。J/sOutlin
44、e what is meant by the electromagnetic spectrum电磁波谱:(按照波长或频率、波数、能量的顺序把电磁波排列起来,波长从短到长依次是)伽马射线-X射线-紫外线-可见光-红外线-微波-无线电波2. Define the Stefan-Boltzmann law.一个黑体外表单位面积在单位时间内辐射出的总能量(称为物体的辐射度)与黑体本身的热力学温度T的四次方成正比F = oT4Explain Wiens law.在一定温度下,绝对黑体的温度与辐射本领最大值相对应的波长入的乘积为一常数入 max = a/T3. The amount of incoming
45、 radiation received by the Earth is determined by which four astronomical factors?太阳常数、日地距离、太阳高度、昼夜长短)决口扇(crevasse splays )当自然堤或人工河堤溃决后,河流携带的大量泥砂,在决口 处因坡度减缓、水流面积增大,流速急遽减弱,泥砂砾快速沉积而形成的扇状地形,称决 口扇。4 )泛滥盆地(flooding basin )泛滥平原中最低的区域,排水不通畅。漫滩水流中的粗粒 沉积物在决口扇和天然堤处沉积后,其中的细粒沉积物在泛滥盆地中呈层状沉积。10. Describe the morp
46、hological and sedimentological characteristics of alluvial fans in different climatic regimes.(参考地貌学)干旱区发育的洪积扇的面积比半干旱和湿润地区发育的洪积扇的面积大得多。CHAPTER 18碳酸盐Outline the types of carbonate factory and why there are differences between the sediments that can be produced in them.热带工厂(tropical factory ):生物自养、冷水工
47、厂(cool-water factory ):非自养、泥丘工厂(mud-mound factory ):生物诱导Why does erosion take place in carbonate factories?机械侵蚀:海浪冲刷化学侵蚀:水体碳酸盐不饱和生物侵蚀:微生物侵蚀What are the different types of coral reef? Outline the characteristics of the sediment successions that are produced in such environments.DOLINESFigure 18.34 Classification of dolines. (Source: after Jennings, 1975)岸礁(Fringing reef): 一个礁,或者直接连接到海岸或边界,这中间有一个浅沟或泻湖 (图 18.14 和图 18.15 )。屏障礁(Barrier reef): 一个由一个大陆或一个深泻湖分开的珊瑚礁,如澳大利亚的大堡 礁(图18.16和图18.17 )。在大堡礁相关就像海滩和泻湖环境(图18.18 )。补丁礁(Patch reef): 一个孤立的,通