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1、Chapter 12 Helping Behavior(助人行为）Altruism（利他主义）is performing acts voluntarily to help someone else when there is no expectation of a reward in any form,except perhaps a feeling of having done a good deed自愿履行行动去帮助他人而不期待任何形式的回报，除了可能感觉到做了件好事）.Prosocial behavior（亲社会行为）is any act that helps or is designe
2、d to help others,regardless of the helpers motives（任何帮助或计划帮助他人的行动，不管帮助者的动机）.Prosocial behavior ranges over a continuum from the most selfless acts of altruism to helpful acts that are motivated entirely by self-interest（亲社会行为范围是从最无私的利他主义行动到完全由自我利益驱动的帮助行动）.Main contents1.助人行为的理论解释.2.助人者的特征(什么样的人成为助人者
3、).3.旁观者现象及其原因;影响助人的其他因素.4.志愿精神的动机.5.受助者的特点与反应.Key termsAltruism(利他主义);prosocial behavior(亲社会行为);survival value(生存价值);self-preservation(自我保存);Organizational citizenship behavior(组织公民行为)I.Theoretical perspective on helping（助人行为的理论）1.Evolutionary perspective（进化视角）:1)Helping and sacrificing for each oth
4、er is universal within species,which runs counter to the principle that the fittest survive.（帮助和为彼此牺牲在一个物种之内很普遍，这与适者生存背道而驰）2)Animals instinct is to pass along their genes to the next generation（动物的本能是将基因传递给下一代）.Helping others can ensure animals to pass on their genes to the next generation,and thus
5、has the highest survival value for a specie,but not for the individual.3)Some predictions based on evolutionary theory are confirmed（有些基于基于进化理论的预测被证实）.4)It is doubtful when used to explain human behaviors（解释人类行为时值得怀疑）.I.Theoretical perspective on helping2.Sociocultural perspective（社会文化视角）:1)Social e
6、volution（社会进化）:the historical development of human culture（人类文化的历史发展）.Human societies have gradually and selectively evolved skills and beliefs that promote the welfare of the group（人类社会逐渐和有选择地发展出一些技能和信念以改善群体福祉）.Because prosocial behavior generally benefits society,it has become part of the social r
7、ules or norms.2)Norms relevant to helping behavior（与助人行为有关的规范）:Norm of social responsibility:We should help others who depend on us.Norm of reciprocity:We should help those who help us.Norm of social justice:Unfairness is uneasy for each person.When unfairness happens,people possible do something to
8、 help the less fortunate.I.Theoretical perspective on helping3.Learning perspective（学习理论视角）:1)People learn social norms about helping and may also develop habits of helpfulness.2)Learning to help through reinforcement the effects of rewards and punishments for helping:Some forms of praise may be mor
9、e effective:Dispositional praise is more effective than global praise.3)Learning to help through modeling by observing others who help.I.Theoretical perspective on helping4.Decision-making perspective（决策视角）:to analyze helping under non-emergency situation.1)Perceiving a need:The crucial first step i
10、n any prosocial act is noticing that something is happening and deciding that help is required.2)Taking personal responsibility:Being trusted with,close relationship,and competence all may influence whether a person will take responsibility.3)Weighing the costs and benefits:Too much costs deter help
11、ing.4)Deciding how to help and taking action:I.Theoretical perspective on helping5.Attribution theory（归因理论）:Helping those who deserve help（帮助值得帮助的人）.Whether or not a person receives help depends in part on his or her behaviors merits（个人是否受到帮助部分程度取决于他的行为价值）.How the potential helper makes inference ab
12、out the persons behavior makes differences（潜在的帮助者对他的行为的推论起作用）.Perceived cause of the persons needEmotional reaction to the person in needWillingness to helpUncontrollable:something outside control Sympathy,pityThe person is perceived as deserving help.Controllable:something under controlAnger,irrita
13、tionThe person is perceived as not deserving help.II.Potential helpers features（潜在助人者的特征）1.Mood and helping（心境和帮助）:1)Positive feeling increases the willingness to act prosocially.Mood-maintenance hypothesis（心境维持假设）:People offer help to prolong their positive emotional state;“doing good”contributes t
14、o good mood.Being in a good mood leads people to have more positive thoughts.Limitations to the“feel-good”effect:The effect often lasts for a short time.When giving help would detract from the persons good mood,a good mood may actually decrease helpfulness.II.Potential helpers features1.Mood and hel
15、ping:2)The effects of bad moods on helping are more complicated（消极情绪对助人的影响是复杂的）.If a person in a bad mood focus on self and own needs,it may lessen the likelihood of helping another person.Negative-state relief model（消极状态解除模型）:People in a bad mood are motivated to try to relieve their own discomfort
16、.If an opportunity to help is perceived as a way to improve mood,the help is more likely to be offered.3)Helping can improve the helpers mood and self-evaluation.II.Potential helpers features2.Motives for helping（助人的动机）:Helping from personal distress（由于个人痛苦的帮助）:Personal distress means our own emotio
17、nal reactions to the plight of others（个人痛苦是我们对他人困境的情绪反应）our feelings of shock,horror,alarm,concern,or helplessness.People may provide help to relieve from personal distress（人们提供帮助以解除他们自己的痛苦）.Helping from empathy（由于同理心的帮助）:Empathy means feelings of sympathy and caring for others（同理心事对他人的同情、关照）.Help m
18、ay be offered when a person focuses on the needs and emotions of the victim.There is no necessary connection between personal distress and offering assistance.Empathy more likely increases helping.II.Potential helpers features3.Personality characteristics（人格特征）:no a single personality profile of the
19、“helpful person”.Whether a potential helper intervenes depends on the match between the persons abilities,values,and motives and the requirements of a particular situation.（潜在的助人者是否提供帮助取决于个人能力、价值观、动机与情境要求之间的匹配）1)Characteristics of Good Samaritans（乐善好施者的人格特点）:They were taller,heavier,and better train
20、ed to cope with emergencies.They perceive themselves as strong,aggressive,and principled.They have more lifesaving,medical,or police training.They are not motivated primarily by humanitarian concern for the victim but acted from a sense of their own competence and responsibility,based on their train
21、ing and physical strength.II.Potential helpers features3.Personality characteristics:2)Blood donors（献血者）:A person who know a family member or a friend had donated blood,or overcome or“neutralize”the fear of giving blood,is more likely donate blood.Repeated blood donors come to view giving blood as a
22、 meaningful activity that enhances their self-concept.3)Rescuers of Jews in Nazi Europe:They behave to social norm of the responsibility to help those in need and religious injunction to“love thy neighbor”.The empathy to the suffering of others and the belief in moral principles of justice and respo
23、nsibility enabled rescuers to overcome fear and to put aside serious risks to their own safety.4)Gender and helping:III.Factors that influence the helping to strangers（影响帮助陌生人的因素）1.The presence of others（他人的出现）:Bystander effect（旁观者效应）Diffusion of responsibility（责任扩散）:A person may feel less personal
24、responsibility in a group of bystanders in a situation where another person needs help.Ambiguity in the interpretation of situation（情境解释的模糊性）:A potential helper perceives the situation by reference to others behavior.Bystanders increase the ambiguity of a situation.Evaluation apprehension（评价顾虑）:Peop
25、le want to act correctly,and would not look foolish.In order to avoid doing something wrong,they tend to inhibit actions.III.Factors that influence the helping to strangers2.Environmental conditions（环境条件）:1)People are more likely to help others when the weather is agreeable.2)City dwellers are unfri
26、endly and unhelpful,whereas small-town residents are cooperative and helpful.Strangers are more likely to be assisted in small towns than in large cities.3.Time pressures（时间压力）:Time pressures reduce the likelihood of helping.IV.Motivation of volunteer（志愿者的动机）Compared with spontaneous acts of helping
27、 strangers in distress,volunteer activities are planned,sustained,and time-consuming.Volunteering can serve many functions:valuesvolunteering enables a person to express such personal values as compassion and concern for the less fortunate.understandingvolunteering enables a person to gain new knowl
28、edge,skills,and experiences.social volunteering is a way to engage in an activity that others value,to gain social approval,and to strengthen social relationships.careervolunteering provides opportunities to advance job or career goals.self-protectionvolunteering helps volunteers to put aside their
29、own problems and avoid feeling guilt for their own good fortune.self-enhancementvolunteering provides opportunities for personal growth and enhanced self-esteem.V.Caregiving:Helping family and friends（家庭的关照）Most of the help occurs in the context of close relationships with family,friends,and coworke
30、rs.1.Young children show the capacity to be helpful to those they know.2.In family life,women are universally cast as the nurturers and caregivers.Women are in charge of“kin work”the maintenance of ties with relatives through visits,letters,phone calls,presents,and social gatherings.Middle-aged wome
31、n care for their children and aging parents.Old women care for their old husbands.Womens reactions to these caregiving activities:VI.Organizational citizenship behavior（组织公民行为）1.Organizational citizenship behavior is behavior that is above and beyond the call of duty behavior that is not required of
32、 organizational members but is necessary for organizational survival and effectiveness.2.There are various forms of OCB.Because they are not formally required of workers,they may not be formally recognized by the organizations reward and incentive systems.研究表明：组织公民行为发生率越高，组织作业水平越高。用助人的、亲社会的方式行动，更可能得
33、到好的评价。3.影响组织公民行为发生的因素：1）员工对自己工作职责范围的理解：2）Satisfied workers are more likely to perform OCBs:Most people like to have fair exchanges with the people and organizations for which they work.3）组织承诺：员工对组织的态度4.Methods to acknowledge OCB（认可组织公民行为的方法）:VII.The experience of receiving help（接受帮助的经验）1.Usually peo
34、ple react to getting help with happiness and gratitude.Sometimes people express aversion to being helped.2.Why sometimes people feel negative about seeking help?Help threats self-esteem:The norm of reciprocity and the costs of indebtedness:Reactance theory:People want to maximize their personal free
35、dom of choice.If we perceive that our freedom is threatened,we often react negatively,with annoyance and hostility.3.New ways to obtain help:self-help groups and groups on net:Exercises 1.Which has no possibility to inhibit helping behavior among the following factors?A.Pleasant mood B.Observing hel
36、ping modelC.Feeling self-distress D.Diffusion of responsibility2.Which factor can facilitate organizational citizenship behavior?A.Feeling satisfied about their job.B.Organizations policies reinforce these behaviors.C.Obvious requirements about performing these behaviors.D.Involving these behaviors into appraisal system of performance.Exercises3.社会文化视角如何解释助人行为?该视角与学习理论之间有什么联系?