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1、Chapter 12Theories of Linguistics n nFunctionalismn nFormalism 21.The functional perspectiven nThe Prague School n nThe London School3n nPrague Linguistic Circle:n nStarted by V.Started by V.MathesiusMathesius(1882-1946)in 1926,with (1882-1946)in 1926,with such activists as R.Jacobson(1896-1982),N.s
2、uch activists as R.Jacobson(1896-1982),N.TrubetzkoyTrubetzkoy(1890-1938)and later J.(1890-1938)and later J.FirbasFirbas(1921-(1921-2000).2000).n nThe Circle stood at the heart of important The Circle stood at the heart of important developments in structural linguistics and developments in structura
3、l linguistics and semiotics in the 1930s.semiotics in the 1930s.1.1 The Prague School4n nThree important points:n nStressed synchronic linguistics,but not rigidly Stressed synchronic linguistics,but not rigidly separated from diachronic studies.separated from diachronic studies.n nL is systemic in t
4、hat no element of L can be L is systemic in that no element of L can be satisfactorily satisfactorily analysedanalysed or evaluated in isolation and or evaluated in isolation and assessment can only be made if its relationship is assessment can only be made if its relationship is established with th
5、e coexisting elements in the established with the coexisting elements in the same language system.same language system.n nL is functional in that it is a tool for performing a L is functional in that it is a tool for performing a number of essential functions or tasks for the number of essential fun
6、ctions or tasks for the community using munity using it.5Prague School Phonologyn nN.Trubetzkoy:Principle of Phonology(1939).n nPhonetics&phonology:different Phonetics&phonology:different for parole&langue.for parole&langue.n nPhoneme:an abstract unit of the Phoneme:an abstract unit of the sound sys
7、tem.sound system.n nDistinctive features:phonological Distinctive features:phonological oppositions.oppositions.6Trubetzkoys contributionsn nShowed distinctive functions of speech sounds and Showed distinctive functions of speech sounds and gave an accurate definition of the phoneme.gave an accurate
8、 definition of the phoneme.n nDefined the sphere of phonological studies.Defined the sphere of phonological studies.n nRevealed interdependent syntagmatic and Revealed interdependent syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations between phonemes.paradigmatic relations between phonemes.n nPut forward a set
9、of methodologies for Put forward a set of methodologies for phonological studies.phonological studies.n nAnalysis of utterances(or texts)in terms of the Analysis of utterances(or texts)in terms of the information they contain.information they contain.n nThe role of each utterance part is evaluated f
10、or its The role of each utterance part is evaluated for its semantic contribution to the whole.semantic contribution to the whole.7n nA sentence contains a point of departure and a goal of discourse.The point of departure,called the theme,is the ground on which the speaker and the hearer meet.n nThe
11、 goal of discourse,called the rheme,presents the very information that is to be imparted to the hearer.n nMovement from theme to Movement from theme to rhemerheme reveals the reveals the movement of the mind itself.movement of the mind itself.8n nTherefore,the functional sentence perspective(FSP)aim
12、s to describe how information is distributed in sentences.n nIt deals particularly with the effect of the distribution of known(given)info and new info in discourse.n nNew info:New info:to be transmitted to the reader or hearer.to be transmitted to the reader or hearer.n nSallySally stands on the ta
13、blestands on the table.Theme Theme RhemeRhemen nOn the table standsOn the table stands SallySally.ThemeTheme RhemeRheme9Three levels of a sentencen nGrammatical Sentence Pattern(GSP)n nSemantic Sentence Pattern(SSP)n nCommunicative Sentence Pattern(CSP)n nJohn has writtena novel.Subject Verb Object
14、(GSP)Agent Action Goal (SSP)Theme Transition Rheme (CSP)10Communicative dynamism(CD)n nJ.Firbasn nLinguistic communication is dynamic,not static.n nCD measures the amount of info an CD measures the amount of info an element carries in a sentence.The element carries in a sentence.The degree of CD is
15、the effect degree of CD is the effect contributed by a linguistic element.contributed by a linguistic element.For example,For example,11n nHe was cross.n nCD:The lowest degree CD:The lowest degree of CD is carried by of CD is carried by hehe,and the highest degree and the highest degree of CD is car
16、ried by of CD is carried by crosscross,with the degree,with the degree carried by carried by waswas ranking ranking between them.between them.12n nNormally the subject carries a lower degree of CD than the verb and/or the object and/or adverbial provided either the verb or the object and/or adverbia
17、l are contextually independent.n nThis is because a known or unknown agent This is because a known or unknown agent expressed by the subject appears to be expressed by the subject appears to be communicatively less important than an unknown communicatively less important than an unknown action expre
18、ssed by the finite verb and/or an action expressed by the finite verb and/or an unknown goal(object or adverbial of place)at or unknown goal(object or adverbial of place)at or towards which the action is directed.towards which the action is directed.13n nFor example,n nA man broke into the house and
19、 A man broke into the house and stole all the money.stole all the money.n nThe ultimate purpose of the communication is to state the action and/or its goal,not the agent.14n nHowever,if the subject is followed by a verb expressing“existence or appearance on the scene”and is contextually independent,
20、then it will carry the highest degree of CD,because an unknown person or thing appearing on the scene is communicatively more important than the act of appearing and the scene itself,e.g.n nAn old man appeared in the waiting room at five An old man appeared in the waiting room at five oclock.oclock.
21、15n nIf the subject is contextually dependent,a contextually independent adverbial of time or place becomes an important local and temporal specification,carrying greater degree of CD than both the subject and the finite verb,as inn nThe old man was sitting in the The old man was sitting in the wait
22、ing room.waiting room.161.2 The London Schooln nB.Malinowski(1884-1942),professor of anthropology(1927).n nJ.R.Firth(1890-1960),the first professor of linguistics in the UK(1944).n nM.A.K.Halliday(1925-),student of Firth.n nAll three stressed the importance of All three stressed the importance of co
23、ntext of situation and the system context of situation and the system aspect of L.aspect of L.17Malinowskis theoriesn nLanguage“is to be regarded as a mode of action,rather than as a counterpart of thought”.n nThe meaning of an utterance comes from its relation to the situational context in which it
24、 occurs.18n nThree types of situational context:n nsituations in which speech interrelates with situations in which speech interrelates with bodily activity;bodily activity;n nnarrative situations;narrative situations;n nsituations in which speech is used to fill a situations in which speech is used
25、 to fill a speech vacuumspeech vacuumphaticphatic munion.19Firths theoriesn nRegarded L as a social process,a means of social life.n nIn order to live,human beings In order to live,human beings have to learn and learning L is a have to learn and learning L is a means of participation in social means
26、 of participation in social activities.activities.n nL is a means of doing things and L is a means of doing things and of making others do things,a of making others do things,a means of acting and living.means of acting and living.20n nL is both inborn and acquired.n nThe object of linguistic study
27、is L in use.n nThe goal of linguistic inquiry is to analyse meaningful elements of L in order to establish corresponding relations between linguistic and non-linguistic elements.n nThe method of linguistic study is to decide on the composite elements of L,explain their relations on various levels,an
28、d ultimately explicate the internal relations between these elements and human activities in the environment of language use.21n nFirth attempted to integrate linguistic studies with sociological studies:n nbecause human beings are inseparable from because human beings are inseparable from cultural
29、values,and L is an important part of cultural values,and L is an important part of cultural values,linguistics can help reveal the cultural values,linguistics can help reveal the social nature of human beings.social nature of human beings.n nMeaning is use,thus defining meaning as the relationship b
30、etween an element at any level and its context on that level.22n nTherefore the meaning of any sentence consists of five parts:n nthe relationship of each phoneme to its phonetic the relationship of each phoneme to its phonetic context;context;n nthe relationship of each lexical item to the others t
31、he relationship of each lexical item to the others in the sentence;in the sentence;n nthe morphological relations of each word;the morphological relations of each word;n nthe sentence type of which the given sentence is the sentence type of which the given sentence is an example;an example;n nthe re
32、lationship of the sentence to its context of the relationship of the sentence to its context of situation.situation.23n nIn analysing typical context of situation,one has to carry out the analysis on four levels:n nInternal relations of the text:n nsyntagmaticsyntagmatic relations in structure relat
33、ions in structuren nparadigmatic relations in systemparadigmatic relations in systemn nInternal relations of the context of situation:n nrelations between text and non-linguistic elementsrelations between text and non-linguistic elementsn nanalytical relations between elements of the text analytical
34、 relations between elements of the text and elements within the situationand elements within the situation24n nA model covering both the situational context and the linguistic context of a text:n nThe relevant features of the participants:persons,personalitiesn nverbal action of participantsverbal a
35、ction of participantsn nnon-verbal action of participantsnon-verbal action of participantsn nThe relevant topics,inc.objects,events,and non-linguistic,non-human events.n nThe effects of the verbal action.25n nProsodic analysis:prosodic phonologyn nSince any human utterance is continuous speech Since
36、 any human utterance is continuous speech flow made up of at least one syllable,it cannot be flow made up of at least one syllable,it cannot be cut into independent units.Mere phonetic and cut into independent units.Mere phonetic and phonological descriptions are insufficient.phonological descriptio
37、ns are insufficient.n nIt is not phonemes that make up the paradigmatic It is not phonemes that make up the paradigmatic relations,but relations,but PhonematicPhonematic Units,the features of Units,the features of which are fewer than those of phonemes and are which are fewer than those of phonemes
38、and are called prosodic units.called prosodic units.26n nHe did not define prosodic units,but his discussion indicates that they include such features as stress,length,nasalisation,palatalisation,and aspiration.n nIn any case,these features cannot be found in one phonematic unit alone.27Systemic-fun
39、ctional grammarn nM A K Halliday(1925-).n nTwo components and inseparable parts:n nsystemic grammar:systemic grammar:internal internal relations in L as a system relations in L as a system network,meaning work,meaning potential.n nfunctional grammar:functional grammar:L as a L as a means of social i
40、nteraction,means of social interaction,uses or functions of language uses or functions of language form.form.28Systemic grammarfiniteclausenonfinitenominal-groupgroup adjectival-adverbial-groupprep-phraseword 29Functional grammarn nIdeational function(experiential&logical):to convey new info,communi
41、cate a content unknown to the hearern nInterpersonal function:to express social and personal relationsn nTextual function:to make any stretch of spoken or written discourse into a coherent and unified text and make a living passage different from a random list of sentences.30312.Generative Grammarn
42、nNOAM CHOMSKY(1928-),institute professor at MIT.Linguist,philosopher,and political activist.32n nThe Logical Structure of Linguistic Theory(1955/1975)The Logical Structure of Linguistic Theory(1955/1975)n nSyntactic Structures(1957)Syntactic Structures(1957)n nAspects of the Theory of Syntax(1965)As
43、pects of the Theory of Syntax(1965)n nCartesian Linguistics(1966)Cartesian Linguistics(1966)n nThe Sound Pattern of English(1968)The Sound Pattern of English(1968)n nLanguage and Mind(1968/1972/2006)Language and Mind(1968/1972/2006)n nReflections on Language(1975)Reflections on Language(1975)n nRule
44、s and Representations(1980)Rules and Representations(1980)n nLectures on Government and Binding(1981)Lectures on Government and Binding(1981)n nKnowledge of Language(1986)Knowledge of Language(1986)n nBarriers(1986)Barriers(1986)n nLanguage and Problems of Knowledge(1988)Language and Problems of Kno
45、wledge(1988)n nLanguage and Thought(1993)Language and Thought(1993)n nThe Minimalist Program(1995)The Minimalist Program(1995)n nNew Horizons in the Study of Language and Mind(2000)New Horizons in the Study of Language and Mind(2000)n nOn Nature and Language(2002)On Nature and Language(2002)332.1 Ea
46、rly theories(1957)n nInnateness hypothesisn nLanguage acquisition mechanismLanguage acquisition mechanismn nCompetence and performanceCompetence and performancen nTransformations:generating an infinite set of sentences from a finite set of elementsn nDeep structure and surface structureDeep structur
47、e and surface structuren nPhrase structure rulesPhrase structure rulesn nTransformationsTransformations34Phrase structure rulesn nS NP VPn nVP V NPn nNP Det Nn nV act,beat,catch,dive,n nN man,boy,book,flower,.3536Transformational rulesn nNP1+Aux+V+NP2n nJohn+will+write+a storyn nNP2+Aux+be+en+V+by+N
48、P1n na story+will+be+en+write+by+John372.2 The standard theory(1965)n nColorless green ideas sleep furiously.n n SubcategorizationSubcategorizationn nN N +N,+N,CommonCommonn n+Common+Common CountCount n n+Count+Count AnimateAnimate n n-Common-Common AnimateAnimate n n+Animate+Animate HumanHuman n n-
49、Count-Count AbstractAbstract 38n nsincerityn n+N,+Common,-Count,+N,+Common,-Count,+Abstract+Abstractn nboyn n+N,+Common,+Count,+N,+Common,+Count,+Animate,+Human+Animate,+Human39402.3 Extended standard theory4142n nTrace theory:a phonetically null element to occupy the position from which a syntactic
50、 element has been moved.n nI really love MaryI really love Mary n nMary I really love Mary I really love t t43n nIndexing:n nWhoWhoi i said Mary kissed said Mary kissed himhimi i?n nwhowhoi i S S t ti i said Mary kissed said Mary kissed himhimi i n n*WhoWhoi i did did hehei i say Mary kissed?say Mar