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1、1 / 5 John Locke Life John Locke was born at Wrington, a village in Somerset, on August 29, 1632. He was the son of a country solicitor and small landowner who, when the civil war broke out, served as a captain of horse in the parliamentary army. “ I no sooner perceived myself in the world than I fo
2、und myself in a storm,” he wrote long afterwards, during the lull in the storm which followed the king s return. But political unrest does not seem to have seriously disturbed the course of his education. He entered Westminster school in 1646, and passed to Christ Church, Oxford, as a junior student
3、, in 1652。 and he had a home there (though absent from it for long periods) for more than thirty years till deprived of his studentship by royal mandate in 1684. The official studies of the university were uncongenial to him。 he would have preferred to have learned philosophy from Descartes instead
4、of from Aristotle 。 but evidently he satisfied the authorities, for he was elected to a senior studentship in 1659, and, in the three or four years following, he took part in the tutorial work of the college. At one time he seems to have thought of the clerical profession as a possible career。 but h
5、e declined an offer of preferment in 1666, and in the same year obtained a dispensation which enabled him to hold his studentship without taking orders. About the same time we hear of his interest in experimental science, and he was elected a fellow of the Royal Society in 1668. Little is known of h
6、is early medical studies. He cannot have followed the regular course, for he was unable to obtain the degree of doctor of medicine. It was not till 1674 that he graduated as bachelor of medicine. In the following January his position in Christ Church was regularized by his appointment to one of the
7、two medical studentships of the college. His knowledge of medicine and occasional practice of the art led, in 1666, to an acquaintance with Lord Ashley (afterwards, from 1672, Earl of Shaftesbury). The acquaintance, begun accidentally, had an immediate effect on Locke s career. Without serving his c
8、onnection with Oxford, he became a member of Shaftesbury s household, and seems soon to have been looked upon as indispensable in all matters domestic and political. He saved the statesman s life by a skillful operation, arranged a suitable marriage for his heir, attended the lady in her confinement
9、, and directed the nursing and education of her son afterwards famous as the author of Characteristics. He assisted Shaftesbury also in public business, commercial and political, and followed him into the government service. When Shaftesbury was made lord chancellor in 1672, Locke became his secreta
10、ry for presentations to benefices, and, in the following year, was made secretary to the board of trade. In 1675 his official life came to an end for the time with the fall of his chief. Locke s health, always delicate, suffered from the London climate. When released from the cares of office, he lef
11、t England in search of health. Ten years earlier he had his first experience of foreign travel and of public employment, as secretary to Sir Walter Vane, ambassador to the Elector of Brandenburg during the first Dutch war. On his return to England, early in 1666, he declined an offer of further serv
12、ice in Spain, and settled again in Oxford, but was soon induced by 精选学习资料 - - - - - - - - - 名师归纳总结 - - - - - - -第 1 页，共 5 页2 / 5 Shaftesbury to spend a great part of his time in London. On his release from office in 1675 he sought milder air in the south of France, made leisurely journeys, and settl
13、ed down for many months at Montpellier. The journal which he kept at this period is full of minute descriptions of places and customs and institutions. It contains also a record of many of the reflections that afterwards took shape in the Essay concerning Human Understanding. he returned to England
14、in 1679, when his patron had again a short spell of office. He does not seem to have been concerned in Shaftesbury s later schemes。 but suspicion naturally fell upon him, and he found it prudent to take refuge in Holland. This he did in August 1683, less than a year after the flight and death of Sha
15、ftesbury. Even in Holland for some time he was not safe from danger of arrest at the instance of the English government 。 he moved from town to town, lived under an assumed name, and visited his friends by stealth. His residence in Holland brought political occupations with it, among the men who wer
16、e preparing the English revolution. it had at least equal value in the leisure which it gave him for literary work and in the friendships which it offered. In particular, he formed a close intimacy with Philip van Limbroch, the leader of the Remonstrant clergy, and the scholar and liberal theologian
17、 to whom Epistola de Tolerantia was dedicated. This letter was completed in 1685, though not published at the time 。 and, before he left for England, in February 1689, the Essay concerning Human Understanding seems to have attained its final form, and an abstract of it was published in Leclerc sBibl
18、iotheque universelle in 1688.The new government recognized his services to the cause of freedom by the offer of the post of ambassador either at Berlin or at Vienna. But Locke was no place hunter。 he was solicitous also on account of his health 。 his earlier experience of Germany led him to fear the
19、 “ cold air” and “ warm drinking”。 and the high office was declined. But he served less important offices at home. He was made commissioner of appeals in May 1689, and, from 1696 to 1700, he was a commissioner of trade and plantations at a salary of L1000 a year. Although official duties called him
20、to town for protracted periods, he was able to fix his residence in the country. In 1691 he was persuaded to make his permanent home at Oates in Essex, in the house of Francis and Lady Masham. Lady Masham was a daughter of Cudworth, the Cambridge Platonist 。 Lock had manifested a growing sympathy wi
21、th his type of liberal theology。 intellectual affinity increased his friendship with the family at Oates。 and he continued to live with them till his death on October 28, 1704. 2. Writings With the exception of the abstract of the Essay and other less important contributions to the Bibliotheque univ
22、erselle, Locke had not published anything before his return to England in 1689。 and by this time he was in his fifty-seventh year. But many years of reflection and preparation made him ready at that time to publish books in rapid succession. In March 1689 his Epistola de Tolerantia was published in
23、Holland 。 an English translation of the same, by William Popple, appeared later in the same year, and in a corrected edition in 1690. The controversy which followed this work led, on Locke s part, to the publication of a Second Letter (1690), and then a Third Letter (1692). In February 1690 the book
24、 entitled Two Treatises of Government was published, and in March of the same year appeared the long expected Essay concerning Human Understanding, on which he had been at work intermittently since 1671. it met with immediate success, and led to a voluminous literature of attack and reply。 young fel
25、lows of colleges tried to 精选学习资料 - - - - - - - - - 名师归纳总结 - - - - - - -第 2 页，共 5 页3 / 5 introduce it at the universities, and heads of houses sat in conclave to devise means for its suppression. To one of his critics Locke replied at length. This was Edward Stillingfleet, bishop of Worcester, who, i
26、n his Vindication of the Doctrine of the Trinity (1696), had attacked the new philosophy. It was the theological consequences which were drawn from the doctrines of theEssay, not so much by Locke himself as by Toland, in his Christianity not Mysterious, that the bishop had chiefly in view。 in philos
27、ophy for its own sake he does not seem to have been interested. But his criticism drew attention to one of the least satisfactory (if also one of the most suggestive) doctrines of the Essay its explanation of the idea of substance。 and discredit was thrown on the “ new way of ideas” in general. In J
28、anuary 1697 Locke replied in A Letter to the Bishop of Worcester. Stillingfleet answered this in May。 and Locke was ready with a second letter in August. Stillingfleet replied in 1698, and Locke s lengthy third letter appeared in 1699. The bishop s death, later in the same year, put an end to the co
29、ntroversy. The second edition of the Essay was published in 1694, the third in 1695, and the fourth in 1700. The second and fourth editions contained important additions. An abridgement of it appeared in 1696, by John Wynne, fellow of Jesus College, Oxford。 it was translated into Latin and into Fren
30、ch soon after the appearance of the fourth edition. The later editions contain many modifications due to the author s correspondence with William Molyneux, of Trinity College, Dublin, a devoted disciple, for whom Locke had a worm friendship. Other correspondents and visitors to Oates during these ye
31、ars were Isaac Newton and Anthony Collins, a young squire of the neighborhood, who afterwards made his mark in the intellectual controversies of the time. Other interests also occupied Locke during the years following the publication of his great work. The financial difficulties of the new governmen
32、t led in 1691 to his publication of Some Considerations of the Consequences of Lowering of Interest, and Raising the Value of Money, and of Further Considerations on the latter question, four years later. In 1693 he published Some Thoughts concerning Education, a work founded on letters written to a
33、 friend, and in 1695 appeared The Reasonableness of Christianity, and later A Vindication of the same against certain objections 。 and this was followed by a second vindication two years afterwards. Locke s religious interest had always been strongly marked, and, in he later years of his life, much
34、of his tie was given to theology. Among the writings of his which were published after his death are commentaries on the Pauline epistles, and a Discourse on Miracles, as well as a fragment of aFourth Letter for Toleration. The posthumously published writings include further An Examination of Father
35、 Malebranche s Opinion of Seeing all things in God, Remarks on Some of Mr Norris s Books, and most important of all the small treatise on The Conduct of the Understanding which had been originally designed as a chapter of the Essay. Two Treatises of Government In Two Treatises of Government he has t
36、wo purposes in view: to refute the doctrine of the divine and absolute right of the Monarch, as it had been put forward by Robert Filmer s Patriarcha, and to establish a theory which would reconcile the liberty of the citizen with political order. The criticism of Filmer in the first Treatise is com
37、plete. His theory of the absolute sovereignty of Adam, and so of kings as A dam s heirs, has lost all interest。 and Locke s argument has been only too effective: his exhaustive reply to so absurd a thesis becomes itself wearisome. Although there is little direct reference to Hobbes, Locke seems to h
38、ave had Hobbes in mind when he argued that 精选学习资料 - - - - - - - - - 名师归纳总结 - - - - - - -第 3 页，共 5 页4 / 5 the doctrine of absolute monarchy leaves sovereign and subjects in the state of nature towards one another. The constructive doctrines which are elaborated in the second treatise became the basis
39、 of social and political philosophy for generations. Labor is the origin and justification of property 。 contract or consent is the ground of government and fixes its limits. Behind both doctrines lies the idea of the independence of the individual person. The state of nature knows no government 。 b
40、ut in it, as in political society, men are subject to the moral law, which is the law of God. Men are born free and equal in rights. Whatever a man “ mixes his labour with” is his to use. Or, at least, this was so in the primitive condition of human life in which there was enough for all and “ the w
41、hole earth was America.” Locke sees that, when men have multiplied and land has become scarce, rules are needed beyond those which the moral law or law of nature supplies. But the origin of government is traced not to this economic necessity, but to another cause. The moral law is always valid, but
42、it is not always kept. In the state of nature all men equally have the right to punish transgressors: civil society originates when, for the better administration of the law, men agree to delegate this function to certain officers. Thus government is instituted by a “ social contract”。 its powers ar
43、e limited, and they involve reciprocal obligations 。 moreover, they can be modified or rescinded by the authority which conferred them. Locke s theory is thus no more historical than Hobbes s. It is a rendering of the facts of constitutional government in terms of thought, and it served its purpose
44、as a justification of the Revolution settlement in accordance with the ideas of the time. Letters on Religious Toleration Locke s plea for toleration in matters of belief has become classical. His Common-Place Book shows that his mind was clear on the subject more than twenty years before the public
45、ation of his first Letter. The topic, indeed, was in the air all through his life, and affected him nearly. When he was a scholar at Westminster, the powers of the civil magistrate in religious matters were the subject of heated discussion between Presbyterians and independents in the assembly of di
46、vines that held its sessions within a stone s throw of his dormitory 。 and, when he entered Christ Church, John Owen, a leader of the independents, had been recently appointed to the deanery. There had been many arguments for toleration before this time, but they had come from the weaker party in th
47、e state. Thus Jeremy Taylor s Liberty of Prophesying appeared in 1646, when the fortunes of his side had suffered a decline. For Owen the credit has been claimed that he was the first who argued for toleration “ whenhis party was uppermost.” He was called upon to preach before the House of Commons o
48、n January 31, 1649, and performed the task without making any reference to the tragic event of the previous day。 but to the published sermon he appended a remarkable discussion on toleration. Owen did not take such high ground as Milton did, ten years later, in his Treatise of Civil Power in Ecclesi
49、astical Causes affirming that “ it is not lawful for any power on earth to compel in matters of religion.” He abounds in distinctions, and indeed his position calls for some subtlety. He holds that the civil magistrate has duties to the church, and that he ought to give facilities and protection to
50、its ministers, not merely as citizens but as preachers of “ the truth”。 on the other hand he argues that civil or corporeal penalties are inappropriate as punishments for offences which are purely spiritual. The position ultimately adopted by Locke is not altogether the same as this. He was never an