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1、-1.2.3.4. 耶鲁大学公开课英国近代史文本-第 17 页5. Early modern EnglandTudor and Stuart England reigns 1480-1710sFaces on the coins: great figures who gave their names to the age 1. Notorious Henry VIII and his six unfortunate wives who are always difficult to remember in the right order.( divorced, beheaded, died,
2、divorced, beheaded, survived)2. Stunning and perplexing Queen Elizabeth I-GlorianaThe virgin queen (joke, whether you imagine her as Cate Blanchett. Or Judi Dench)3. Four Stuart Kings James I “the wisest fool in Christendom”, a man who after an adventurous youth as a King of Scotland and became a Ki
3、ng of England. Charles I (his son) whose policies precipitated civil war in the middle 17 century, and was eventually put on trail and executed by his own people in 1649. Charles II (his son) restored to the throne after ten years of republican government (1649-1659 Oliver Cromwell) known as the “Me
4、rry Monarch”, famous for having innumerable mistresses and 14 illegitimate children. James II (his brother) former Duke of York, came to the throne. After three years, was driven from it in the second English Revolution of the 17 century, and driven into exile, later known as the King over the water
5、.It has been said that two of the Stuart Kings were politically astute狡猾的, but morally defective, and two were virtuous men, whose political ineptitude cost them the throne. Oliver Cromwell- He was born and died on September 3rd, also fought his two greatest battles on September 3rd. The greatest Pu
6、ritan General. 清教领袖 The lord protector of the English republic between 1653 to 1658. A quite extraordinary figure, ahead of time on religious toleration.Early modern EnglandThe broad period between the end of 15 century and the middle of 18 century.This was a time of great events: the Reformation; t
7、he civil wars of 17 century; the foundations of the first British Empire.Besides these rules, others like Shakespeare, Milton, diarist Samuel Pepys ( you say Peeps), the Proto-democrat John Lilburne, the early feminist writer Mary AstellIn 1500, England was very much a personal monarchy, the King re
8、ally ruled.By 1700, a constitutional monarchy, in which the centre of political life is a sitting elected Parliament, and it was not a King of England, but United Kingdom of England, Scotland, Ireland, and Wales.In 1500, England: Catholic, Christendom, practice late medieval CatholicismIn 1700, Prot
9、estant 新教政策In 1500, a localized economy of peasant families and urban craftsmenBy 1700, a commercialized market economyIn 1500, illiterateBy 1700, literacy widespread; a print culture; the first English language newspaperIn 1509, Edmund Dudley, laid imprisoned in the tower of LondonHe wrote a book H
10、enry VIII“Commonwealth” has four roots: 1. Love of Gods 2. Justice 3. Trust 4. ConcordIt also has four fruits: 1. Tranquility 2. Good example 3. Worldly prosperity 4. The honor of GodThree estates or orders: 1. Clergy 2. Chivalry 骑士: Dukes公爵, nights普通骑士, esquires侍从, gentlemen绅士 3. Commonalty 平民二 Hie
11、rarchy 等级1. King: “anoinited of God”2. Chivalry (beneath the crown)：peerage 世袭贵族; gentry 绅士阶层 Peerage: Inheritable titles: dukes 公爵；earls 侯爵；marquises 伯爵；viscounts 子爵；barons 男爵；lords 勋爵特权：1. Only be tried by their peers, in the House of Lords when Parliament sat. 只能在上议院上由贵族审判2. Had the right to sit
12、in Parliament by virtue of their birth and social position. 由出身和社会地位直接进入议会Churchmen 神职人员：(在上议院中)The bishop主教, and the abbot of great monasteries 大修道院院长 both sat in the Parliament in the House of Lords 不停之处Distinction:Their position were not inheritable. They were pointed by the pope 国王 Gentry : knig
13、ht 骑士；esquires 侍从；mere gentlemen 一般绅士1. Knights were created by the monarch for service mainly in war or in government. “dubbing the knights” 授予In 16 century, they were usually selected to be made knights from amongest the leading families of each of 40 countries of the kingdom.2. Enquires 3. Mere g
14、entlemen : No titles, except the right to be called “Mister” 先生; had the right to bear a coat of arms.In summary, peerage & churchmen & gentry were the principal landowners of England and Wales.A study showed that in 16 century, peerage accounted for 27% of the land; gentry 46%, all the rest belonge
15、d to churchmen.Land: incomes, the rents were paid to the landowners. 地租收入是主要来源A source of power over tenants; “lordship” over men. 贵族身份In rural society 农村社会Commonalty: people divided into four subordinate groups: yeomen 约曼；husbandmen自耕农；craftsmen and tradesmen手工艺者和小买卖者；cottagers and laborers 耕农和苦力1.
16、 Yeomen: defined as being owner-occupies who possessed freehold lands. 自有土地的农场主, but most of them were tenant farmers. 农场租户What is crucial is substantial tenant farmers 农场承租人: they employ labor and produce surplus2. Husbandmen: small family farmers, with holdings of under 30 acres or so .小家庭式农场主， 大部
17、分自有土地30英亩, but replying on their direct family labor. 家庭劳力3. Village craftsmen and tradesmen: some might be of substance, e.g. Millers and blacksmiths 磨坊主和铁匠；others usually poor, e.g. Tailors and alehouse keeps 裁缝和酒屋主4. Cottages and labors: some held a few acres of land, some might have a trade, mos
18、t of them relied upon wages for at least a part of income.In summary, the rural society was highly differentiated 高度分化Gender & AgeWomen: take their society order from their husbands, fathers, and masters, and their social identities were “subsumed” of adult male heads.Young people: apprentices 学徒“长着
19、政治” gerontocratic: the old should rule三 The household 家庭The household can be defined in the first instance as being a unit of residence; it was a unit of authority; and has been described as a unit that was “geared for work” 为工作而生Different from modern households in there essential respects:1. Differ
20、ed structurally in that a substantial number of them contained. 家庭成员结构不同2. Differed conceptually 家庭概念不同3. Differed functionally 家庭功能不同A patriarchal society 族长制观念的社会四 Community 社区The first county maps, which county by county were produced by Christopher Saxon 1576.The characteristic unit of lordship
21、was “manor”. 统治的基本单位是“庄园”Demesne land: in the middle ages had been mostly cultivated by self labor. 由农奴耕种By 1500, the demesne land tended to be let out by lords in large units to yeoman farmers.As for tenant land, some was held by freehold, 1/5. A freeholder, owned his land, could leave it in his wi
22、ll or sell it., but he owned the duty of “recognition of lordship” to the lord of the manor, which he had to pay a small annual sum.Most tenants held their land by “customary tenure” 惯例性土地权，that is to say, the land was granted out to them in the court of the manor. 土地在庄园法庭授予他们耕种They held it on terms
23、 “according to the custom of the manor”. 其土地权形式“依据庄园惯例”The customary tenants were usually described as “copyholders” 公薄持有农“copyholders” paid a down payment to their lord called a fine 罚金，they paid an annual rent. sometimes custom has governed their rules in that locality “time out of mind of man” 太久
24、导致记不清了To this extent, custom was seen as being essentially the property of the tenant community 惯例是租户社区的基本性质Peasant rebellion and popular protest revolves around custom. If custom was one key word in rural society, “neighborhood” was emphatically another.Neighborliness also found its expression in f
25、our forms: one form was ecclesiastical parish 教区England was divided not only into units of lordship, manor, but also into about ten thousand ecclesiastical parishes.The towns also have distinctive institutions which wouldnt find in the countryside. Most towns had a strong sense of identity as autono
26、mous, self-governing communities. 六 Politics and structures of Power under the early Tudors 权力机构On the 22nd of August 1485, Henry Tudor, who was then the earl of Richmond, defeated and killed King Richard III at the battle of Bosworth Field, a battlefield which is located in the central England in t
27、he county of Leicestershire, and was crowned upon the battlefield with the crown which was found in the Kings tent, and became King as Henry VII. In fact, he claimed to the throne was somewhat weak. He was descended on his fathers side from the widow of King Henry V, who had married Henrys grandfath
28、er after the Kings death. His claim from principally through his mother, Lady Margaret Beaufort, who was a descendant of 14 century King Edward III. Nevertheless, weak as he was, Henry was the last of claimants of the Lancastrians House. In the 24 years following his seizure of the throne, he made i
29、t his business first of all to hang on to it, secondly to assert his authority as best as he could, and thirdly to pass on his crown to his son Henry VIII, who succeeded him in 1509., and by doing so, he founded a new dynasty, the Tudor dynasty. 都驿王朝By “power”, Im concerned with the capacity to secu
30、re compliance and obedience on the part of others.By “authority”, I mean legitimate power: those forms of power and its manifestations which were deemed by most, if not all, people to be legitimate, to put you obligation to obey. The polity, a system of established government and rule. In 1500, Engl
31、and was a quiet intensively and uniformly governed monarchy. It has existed as a single monarchy for 600 to 700 years already. The origin of the high degree of centralization probably go back to the late Saxon kings, but in particular to the time of Norman conquest of the 11 century. The king was, o
32、f course, at the centre of the polity.在1500年英国是一个统一的集权国家，作为单独王国它已经存在了六七百年，这种高度集权的统治可以追溯到古老的撒克逊诸王，特别是在11世纪诺曼底征服时期，国王是政体的中心The principal function of the king were seen to be those of : keeping the peace and defending the realm; maintaining the law and the administration of the law; and upholding the c
33、hurch: a relatively limited set of functions compared to the modern government. And to achieve those ends, the king enjoyed a variety of powers. He enjoyed what was thought of his ordinary powers, and exercised within the framework of the law, but in time of emergency, he might also exercise residua
34、l absolute powers, which could go beyond the normal boundaries of the law. 国王的基本职责是保卫和平，防御领土，维持法律，维护和平，还有支持教会，这些职责相比现代政府相当有限，为了履行这些职责， 国王拥有强大的权利，平时它可以在法律范围内享有其通常的权利，紧急情况下还能执行绝对权利，这将远远超过通常的法律界限。英格兰国王已经拥有相当高的君威和主权。In 1400 onwards, they were often represented in the coinage, -they were represented what
35、s known as the “imperial crown”. The crown was symbolized that they recognized no authority higher than themselves save God alone. And though the authority of the pope was exercised within the kingdom over the church, agreements which had been reached and statutes meant that in practice in making ap
36、pointments in the church, the pope usually act on the advice and in consultation with the king. So a monarchy of considerable dignity claiming a sovereignty represented in the imperial crown. 十四世纪后，硬币上的肖像通常都头顶皇冠，皇冠象征着除了上帝，没有谁的权威能高过君王，因此，虽然英格兰的教会也属于教皇管辖，但根据14世纪的协议，教会任命的实践中，教皇通常需要征求国王的意见，权威不能凌驾于国王，因此这
37、是有名的君主国。Royal authority was supreme. 皇权至高无上Restrictions: 1. Kings were expected to take advice, to be guided by the counsel, by the counsel of their leading subjects. They ruled with the advice of a variety of councils. In addition, he was restricted by the law, the “common law” of England. The comm
38、on law was administered in the Kings names. All legal writs began with the kings title. 虽然如此，君主还是要受制于一些特定的政治期望和特定的宪政制度。首先，国王听取意见，需要听取其高级臣民的意见，其统治需要各种咨议会议，偶尔举行大型会议，日常是小型会议，某些会议成员是大贵族，但通常是荣誉席位。此外，国王还受英格兰普通法的约束。普通法已经有几个世纪的历史，依赖惯例和先例，以国王的名义进行治理，所有文书均打着国王的名号，以国王的名义治理。The administration od the law, the pr
39、ovision of justice, and the redness of grievances, the means of settling disputes peacefully, was one of the principal functions in the royal government. 依法治理，促进公平，冤情补偿，和平解决争端，这都是皇家政府的基本职能，偶尔国王也会亲自到法庭，但多数情况，皇室成员都不出席法庭，法庭总在威斯敏斯特开庭，就是现在的英国国会大厦，法官都是皇家官员。主要法庭：The principal courts: a court of Kings bench
40、: criminal matters 王室法庭处理刑事案件The court of Common Plea: civil cases 民诉法庭处理民事案件The Chancery, or the Court of te Lord Chancellor 衡平法庭或大法官法庭: it was a court of equity. 特殊在于它是衡平法法庭In addition to the central courts, the Kings also exercised justice by commission. 国王还通过委任来执行公正In addition, the king exercise
41、d justice through the commission of the peace. 此外，国王还委任一些人来维持治安Counsel and law came together in another great institution: Parliament. the periodic meeting of the king, the nobility who had the right to sit in the House of the Lords，and the representatives of the commons of the kingdom会议和法律合起来又构成了不得
42、不提的制度，国会制度。国王和有权入席上议院的贵族及王国内平民的代表，共商国是的周期性会议制度。The House of the Lords consists of the leading lay and church nobility of the realm, summoned by a person writ to attend. 上议院由主要有贵族和教会贵族组成，通过个人文书召集. The House of Commons consists of a gathering of two representatives for each county, they were known as
43、the “knights of the shire”, and two representatives from the each city which had the parliamentary franchise, they were known as burgesses. 下议院在每个郡有两个议员，被成为“郡之骑士”；拥有国会特权的额城市也有两名议员，称为城市议员Parliament, then, represent the while realm, and it had two great functions, long established: 1. Only parliament
44、could make statutes, new laws which could override or modify common law custom, so the legislative sovereignty of the realm lay in the Parliament, where the king, the lord, the commons acted together. Bills proposing new laws were presented, they were read and debated in each of the houses before be
45、ing passed, and passed on to the king for his consent or veto.有权立法的只有国会，新法能推翻并修正普通法惯例，王国的立法主权位于国会，由国王，贵族，平民共同商议，新发议案提交以后，在两院进行宣读和讨论后通过， 呈送国王准许或否决。2. Parliament could grant taxes, which from the 14 century required the consent of the House of the Commons.国会还能通过税案,从14世纪开始，课税要通过下议院同意。One last word on i
46、nstitutions and that concerns finance. The king was expected to “live on his own”, that means he was expected to live on the revenues of the royal and holdings, the customs dues and other dues which were due to him as feudal overlord of the kingdom, and for all normal purposes, that should provide f
47、or all his expenses. The collection and the disbursement of royal revenues was handled by an institution called the Exchequer, at Westminster.最后是关于财产的，国王需要自理生计，国王需要以皇家土地的收入来过活，包括作为王国最大封建主的惯例收入及其他收入，一般情况下这些需要提供国王的所有支出。皇家财政的收入和支出由威斯敏斯特的财务部主管。Reliance on taxation was rare, taxes would be voted by Parli
48、ament for extraordinary circumstances, and would then be collected and returned to the Exchequer.通常国王不会依赖税收，税收需要在特殊情况下由国会表决，之后收集上交财务部。The nobility were rich and powerful, but they didnt have fully independent jurisdiction of their own, where the kings authority didnt run. English nobles depended ultimately for their power upon grants of royal office, their local authority was granted to them by the king.贵族富有而有权势，但他们没有独立的司法权，必须服从国王的权威。因此英格兰贵族权利最终需要得到皇家机构的授权，其地方权威由君主授权。So hoe did the early Tud