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1、二二.联系上下文来确定词义联系上下文来确定词义In recent reports of eight cases of viral hepatitis, four were seen with acute urticaria荨麻疹荨麻疹in the pre-icteric黄疸早黄疸早期期phase. (cases: 例例)Massive bleeding may not be brought under control in time. Such being the case, prompt operation is indicated. ( case: 情况情况)Fever may be hi
2、gh and sustained in severe cases. ( cases: 病例病例) The patient had a history of tarry stools ( black bowels ) prior to admission. ( had: 有有)The number of colds a person has is closely associated with his general health and the care he takes of himself. ( has: 患患)The nurse should have the patients chan
3、ging their lying positions frequently so as to prevent bedsore. ( have: 使使, 让让) 普通词汇在医学专业上的特殊含义普通词汇在医学专业上的特殊含义英语中有些普通词汇英语中有些普通词汇, 用于医学专业时用于医学专业时, 具有特殊的含义具有特殊的含义. 这种含义有的可在词典这种含义有的可在词典中查到中查到, 有的则不一定能够查到有的则不一定能够查到. 碰到这类词碰到这类词, 如果按照普通词义解释不通如果按照普通词义解释不通, 就应该考虑其在医学专业上的特殊含义就应该考虑其在医学专业上的特殊含义. 同时同时, 我们要在平时阅读
4、过程中不我们要在平时阅读过程中不断掌握和积累这方面的词汇知识断掌握和积累这方面的词汇知识, 否则否则, 我们在翻译时我们在翻译时, 就会产生误译或者就会产生误译或者词不达意词不达意.Asthma哮喘哮喘is not a disease entity but one form of clinical presentation of a variety of disorders of the bronchi.Entity: 存在存在, 实体实体, 统一体统一体, 本质本质应该翻译为应该翻译为: 病种病种2. Coryza鼻炎鼻炎is the primary infection of the nos
5、e and nasopharynx鼻咽鼻咽.Primary: 主要的主要的, 基本的基本的, 第一的第一的, 领先的领先的*应该翻译为应该翻译为: 原发原发(性性)的的3. Heart failure is a frequent and important complication of subacute亚急性亚急性bacterial endocarditis ( 心内膜炎心内膜炎).Heart failure 应该翻译为应该翻译为: 心力衰竭心力衰竭 * frequent 应该翻译为应该翻译为: 常见的常见的4. The cough is dry at first and later pro
6、ductive of rusty and bloody sputum.起初是干咳起初是干咳, 后来后来咳出铁锈色痰和血痰咳出铁锈色痰和血痰 5. The blood concentration of urea尿素尿素and other nitrogenous氮氮肥肥compound steadily rises.*(血液中血液中) 尿素和其他含氮化学物的浓度尿素和其他含氮化学物的浓度6. In such cases, heart murmur is often present.( 常出现常出现) 心脏杂音心脏杂音7. The higher fatality rates were usually
7、 attributable to secondary bacterial pneumonia.继发性细菌性肺炎继发性细菌性肺炎8. The lungs should be carefully examined at frequent intervals for signs of pulmonary consolidation团结团结.*pulmonary consolidation应译为应译为: 肺实变肺实变9. As term approaches, there is a good possibility of complications. Term应译为应译为: 预产期预产期10. The
8、 victim of shock will die very quickly unless something is done to restore circulation immediately. *休克患者休克患者11. An aggressive dosage of penicillin as high as 40, 000, 000 units per diem is recommended. 建议给以每日高达，单位青霉素的冲击剂量建议给以每日高达，单位青霉素的冲击剂量词义引申错误举例：词义引申错误举例：It is true that the embryo胚胎胚胎surgeon tod
9、ay does not always admit that the road to success must lead through a study of pathology.the embryo surgeon ：初出茅庐的外科医生初出茅庐的外科医生2. Application of laser in medicine is still in its infancy.in its infancy: 发展的初期发展的初期3. Xiao Liu is only nineteen and the baby in the ward.the baby in the ward: （是）病房里年龄最小的
10、（是）病房里年龄最小的4. Some organisms are inoculated注射注射/接种接种through the skin by biting insects.are inoculated应译为应译为: 进入体内进入体内5. The clinical behavior of these two diseases varies.The clinical behavior 临床表现临床表现6. In the context of an epidemic, influenza may easily be distinguished from other acute respirator
11、y diseases, although diagnosis of the isolated case may be difficult. context: 上下文，来龙去脉上下文，来龙去脉1.In the context of an epidemic：在流行的情况下在流行的情况下翻译中的补充翻译中的补充补充是在翻译过程中，按意义上，修辞上和句法上的需要增加一些词来忠实通顺补充是在翻译过程中，按意义上，修辞上和句法上的需要增加一些词来忠实通顺地表达原文的思想内容在翻译过程中之所以要采取这种处理方法，是由地表达原文的思想内容在翻译过程中之所以要采取这种处理方法，是由于英汉两种语言文字的巨大差异决
12、定的例如：于英汉两种语言文字的巨大差异决定的例如：Susceptibility感受性感受性to colds varies.感冒的易感性是变化的不同的感冒的易感性是变化的不同的感冒的易感性因人而异感冒的易感性因人而异对表示动作行为意义的名词补充汉语名词对表示动作行为意义的名词补充汉语名词）If the white blood cell count of a blood sample is unusually high, it is usually an indication that there is infection present in the body.*（通常表明体内存在着感染（通常表
13、明体内存在着感染现象现象） ）The patient was admitted to the hospital during the early evening with obvious large-bowel obstruction.（有明显的大肠梗阻（有明显的大肠梗阻症状症状）Chloromycetin氯霉素氯霉素is produced by either chemical synthesis or fermentation发酵发酵. 氯霉素或者用化学合成氯霉素或者用化学合成法法生产，或者用发哮生产，或者用发哮法法生产生产）Another area of disagreement is t
14、hat of postoperative care.1.另外的意见分歧之处为术后的护理另外的意见分歧之处为术后的护理问题问题2. 在名词或动名词前后补充汉语动词在名词或动名词前后补充汉语动词1) Diseases associated with atherosclerosis动脉粥样硬化动脉粥样硬化are an increasing problem in most parts of the world and, as with many other problems of today, are becoming more and more urgent for the younger gene
15、ration.并发于动脉粥样硬化的疾病并发于动脉粥样硬化的疾病, 在世界上大部分地区正越来越在世界上大部分地区正越来越成为成为问题问题; 而且和现而且和现在存在的许多其他问题一样在存在的许多其他问题一样, 在年轻一代中在年轻一代中, 变得愈来愈迫切变得愈来愈迫切需要解决需要解决了了.2) The evaluation of lung radiolucency (X线通透度线通透度)is highly subjective and is very dependent upon film technique. 肺部肺部X线通透度的评定具有高度的主观性线通透度的评定具有高度的主观性, 而且在很大程度
16、上取决于而且在很大程度上取决于拍片拍片的技术的技术.3. 补充概括性的词补充概括性的词potency药效药效, curve of action, characteristics of absorption and elimination消除消除are factors that play an important role in determining where a drug may be used. 药效药效, 作用曲线作用曲线, 吸收与清除特性吸收与清除特性, 是决定一种药物在何种场合下可以采用是决定一种药物在何种场合下可以采用的的四个四个重要因素重要因素. 2) The primary
17、functions performed by the blood are nutrition of tissues, transportation of waste, chemical and thermal coordination of the body and last but not least defense against infection.血液的血液的四大四大功能是功能是, 为人体组织提供营养为人体组织提供营养, 运输体内废物运输体内废物, 协调体内化学物协调体内化学物质与温度质与温度, 最后最后, 但并非最不重要的是抵抗感染但并非最不重要的是抵抗感染.4. 补充解说性的词补充
18、解说性的词typically, the patient was initially benefited by antibiotics and subsequently became refractory顽固的顽固的or even worsened.典型的典型的情况情况是是, 病人开始使用抗生素是病情好转病人开始使用抗生素是病情好转, 随后则变得顽固难治甚至病情恶随后则变得顽固难治甚至病情恶化化.2) Viruses possess certain properties attributed to living things- and there is as yet satisfactory b
19、ase upon which to determine the relative viability生存生存or non-viability of these infection agents. 病毒具有生物的某些特性病毒具有生物的某些特性-, 但是但是, 至今尚无可靠的根据能确定这些传染因子究竟至今尚无可靠的根据能确定这些传染因子究竟具有相对生存能力抑或无生存能力的具有相对生存能力抑或无生存能力的问题问题. 5. 补充加强上下文连贯性的词补充加强上下文连贯性的词1) In connection with the use of disinfectants it should be stated
20、 that their potency is greatly increased by raising the temperature.关于消毒剂的使用关于消毒剂的使用, 应当说应当说, 如果如果增加温度增加温度, 其效能其效能就会就会大大提高大大提高. 2) The large majority of patients take a rather more practical intermediate折中的折中的view in using analgesics ( pain-killers), believing that though side effects may occur, the
21、 relief of pain obtained is more than worth the relatively slight risk of a serious toxic reaction. 大多数病人对服用止痛药所采取的是一种比较实际的大多数病人对服用止痛药所采取的是一种比较实际的折中的观点折中的观点. 他们认为服用止痛药他们认为服用止痛药固然固然可能产生副作用可能产生副作用, 但是但是缓解疼痛与稍微承担缓解疼痛与稍微承担一点严重的毒性反应的风险相比一点严重的毒性反应的风险相比, 还是还是值得的值得的.6. 补充表达时间的词补充表达时间的词翻译过去完成时的时候翻译过去完成时的时候,
22、往往补充往往补充:” 那时那时-已经已经, (曾曾)-(过过,了了)等等The patient had already been out of danger. The old client had suffered from incontinence失禁失禁before admission.2) 翻译过去进行时的时候翻译过去进行时的时候, 往往补充往往补充:” 当时当时-正在正在-着着” 等等The patient was suffering from bronchitis.练习练习: ( Put into Chinese)There is no evidence that the patie
23、nts tumor is malignant恶性的恶性的. The change in matter are of two types, physical and chemical.The patients feel quite at home in the hospital.If heredity遗传遗传is complex, equally so is environment.This is the time when the germs are most active in the patient.In recent years, there has been an alarming i
24、ncrease in cancer of the lungs. 7. In a patient with gastric ulcer ( 胃溃疡胃溃疡) the pain usually occurs from 1 to 2 hours and in a patient with duodenal ulcer ( 十二指肠溃疡十二指肠溃疡), from 2 to 3 hours after meals. 8. Avoiding exposure to influenza during epidemic period is probably impossible, and isolation o
25、f cases is of not much value in preventing the spread of influenza.9. Any skin condition should be checked by a physician, especially if change suggest possible skin cancer.10. Antibiotics have been used to deal with almost all known bacteria. Without them, we could not have rescued so many lives. 1
26、1. As is known to us all that all matter consists of molecules, and molecules of atoms. 12. Although the importance of proteins, carbohydrates糖类糖类, fats, and minerals have been widely recognized, man cannot live upon a mixture of these alone. In addition to these, there must be included in the diet
27、substances called vitamin. 否定结构的翻译否定结构的翻译一一. 全部否定全部否定英语中表示否定意义的词有英语中表示否定意义的词有no, not, none, never, nothing, nowhere, nobody, neither, nor 等等. 这类词翻译成汉语这类词翻译成汉语, 一般依然为否定形式一般依然为否定形式, 整个句子也为否定句整个句子也为否定句,不过词序略有变动不过词序略有变动. 这是因为英语的全部否定结构往这是因为英语的全部否定结构往往不采用谓语否定往不采用谓语否定, 而把否定词放在非谓语部分而把否定词放在非谓语部分. 这和汉语的表达正好相反
28、这和汉语的表达正好相反, 汉语是用谓语否定来表达全部否定的概念汉语是用谓语否定来表达全部否定的概念. 也就是说也就是说, 否定词往往放在谓语否定词往往放在谓语部分部分.1. No与与notNo 是形容词是形容词, 否定名词否定名词 ( =not any ). 如果如果No与所否定的名词之间有形容词与所否定的名词之间有形容词, 它所否定的还是名词它所否定的还是名词. 翻译时否定词翻译时否定词No常与动词译在一起常与动词译在一起. 例如例如:A number of patients can recall no recent sore throat.许多患者许多患者想不起想不起最近是否有过咽痛最近是
29、否有过咽痛. (不能够翻译成不能够翻译成”-不是最近的不是最近的”)There is no firm evidence to support this viewpoint.没有确切的证据没有确切的证据支持这个观点支持这个观点. (不能够翻译成不能够翻译成”有不确切的证据有不确切的证据”)We know of no effective way to cure the disease.我们我们不知道不知道治愈此病的有效方法治愈此病的有效方法. (不能够翻译成不能够翻译成”无效的方法无效的方法”)Radiation damage once has occurred is irrevocable不可撤
30、销不可撤销, and no treatment is of any value. 放射损伤一旦发生就难以恢复放射损伤一旦发生就难以恢复, 任何治疗都没有效果任何治疗都没有效果. (不能够翻译成不能够翻译成”没有治疗没有治疗是有任何效果的是有任何效果的”)Not 为副词为副词, 可以用于否定动词可以用于否定动词(包括不定式包括不定式, 分词分词), 形容词形容词, 副词副词, 代词代词, 数词数词等等. 翻译时一般可将否定词翻译时一般可将否定词Not 与所否定的词译在一起与所否定的词译在一起. 但是当带有宾语从句但是当带有宾语从句的主句的谓语动词有的主句的谓语动词有Not否定时否定时, 一般应该
31、将从句的谓语动词翻译为否定一般应该将从句的谓语动词翻译为否定. The doctors do not expect that the patient with breast cancer will recover rapidly.医生认为那位乳癌患者医生认为那位乳癌患者不会不会很快恢复很快恢复.The size of the cells does not depend on the size of the animal.细胞的大小细胞的大小并不并不取决于动物的大小取决于动物的大小.As in the case of cancer in other organs the cause of pri
32、mary carcinoma of the liver is not completely understood.像其他器官的癌症一样像其他器官的癌症一样, 原发性肝癌的病因原发性肝癌的病因并不完全并不完全清楚清楚.2. None 的否定语气比的否定语气比not强强Acupuncture analgesia is none the less efficacious有效的有效的for all its simplicity.针刺止痛术的效力针刺止痛术的效力, 决不决不因为其简易而稍有逊色因为其简易而稍有逊色.The reaction is none the stronger for all the
33、 aggressive therapy.治疗虽然积极治疗虽然积极, 反应却反应却毫不毫不强烈强烈.The side effect is none too serious.副作用副作用一点也不一点也不严重严重.3. Never 也是一个语气很强的全部否定词也是一个语气很强的全部否定词. 用于命令句中多放在句首用于命令句中多放在句首; 在陈述在陈述句中句中, 也常常置于句首并倒装谓语也常常置于句首并倒装谓语, 以加强语气以加强语气.Never give morphine to unconscious patients, patients who have head injuries, those
34、with respiratory depression, or those without pain.切不可切不可对下列病人应用吗啡对下列病人应用吗啡:不省人事者不省人事者, 头部外伤者头部外伤者, 有呼吸抑制者或无痛觉者有呼吸抑制者或无痛觉者. 4. Neither 和和 norNeither 和和 nor 可以单独使用可以单独使用, 也可联合使用也可联合使用, 意义稍有不同意义稍有不同. 再者再者, Neither 可以用做代词可以用做代词,形容词形容词,副词副词,连词连词; nor 则只能用做连词则只能用做连词. 两者单独作为连词使两者单独作为连词使用时用时, 谓语要倒装谓语要倒装.Ne
35、ither of the agents is antihypertensive.两两种药种药都不能都不能降压降压. ( 代词代词)Tetracycline(四环素四环素)has no demonstrable effects on the central nervous system, neither has chloromycetin(氯霉素氯霉素)四环素对中枢神经系统无明显作用四环素对中枢神经系统无明显作用,氯霉素氯霉素也一样也一样. (连词连词)Therapy is unfavorable in neither case.两种情况下两种情况下, 治疗都不理想治疗都不理想. (形容词形容词
36、)It is neither pleasant to eat nor good for health.它它既不既不可口可口, 也无益于健康也无益于健康. ( 副词副词 )二二. 部分否定部分否定英语中英语中all, every, always, much, many, often 等词与等词与not搭配在搭配在 一起可以表示部分否定一起可以表示部分否定, 在汉语中通常翻译成在汉语中通常翻译成 “ 不都不都是是”, “不全是不全是”, “不是都不是都”, “非皆非皆”, “并非人人并非人人”, “不不常常”, “不多不多” 等等.Not all drugs are bitter to the t
37、aste. 药药不都是不都是苦味的苦味的.2) Not all mass-like lesions(病灶病灶)of the lung are due to carcinoma.肺内的肿块样病灶肺内的肿块样病灶并非都是并非都是癌所致癌所致.3) Not every case of carcinoma is resectable(可可切除切除 ).并非每一例并非每一例癌肿都能够进行手术切除癌肿都能够进行手术切除.4) The pathogen is sensitive to not many chemicals.这种病原体对这种病原体对为数不多为数不多的化学药物敏感的化学药物敏感.5) Not a
38、ll of them were discharged from hospital last week.上周他们当中上周他们当中并非所有的人并非所有的人都出院了都出院了.6) Both of the compounds(化合物化合物)are not acids.1) 这两种化合物这两种化合物不全都是不全都是酸酸. 三三. 准否定准否定英语中有些词或词组英语中有些词或词组, 否定含义不明显否定含义不明显, 从字面上看也不象否定词从字面上看也不象否定词, 可是在句中使可是在句中使用时或由于词义的引申用时或由于词义的引申, 或由于修辞的需要或由于修辞的需要, 或由于汉语表达习惯等或由于汉语表达习惯等,
39、 汉语汉语往往翻译成否定语气往往翻译成否定语气. 这类词有的是动词这类词有的是动词, 有的是形容词有的是形容词, 有的是连词或介有的是连词或介词词. 这类词有时还具有否定以外的其他含义这类词有时还具有否定以外的其他含义, 翻译时必须谨慎翻译时必须谨慎.1. 动词或动词短语引起的否定动词或动词短语引起的否定常见的有常见的有: Deny( 否认否认, 拒绝拒绝), escape ( 被被-忘记忘记, 未被注意未被注意), fail, lack, differ from, prefer-to-Such a chance was denied me. 我我没有得到没有得到这样的机会这样的机会.2) T
40、he specification (manual) lacks details.这份说明书这份说明书不够不够详尽详尽. 3) Paralysis(瘫痪瘫痪) occurs when a nerve fails to carry signals to make the muscle move.当神经当神经不能不能传送信号使肌肉运动时传送信号使肌肉运动时, 就会产生瘫痪就会产生瘫痪.4) The majority of patients seem to prefer taking medicines to being operated on.大多数患者宁愿服药大多数患者宁愿服药, 而不愿意而不愿意
41、手术手术.5) Careful clinical studies by Shoemaker failed to demonstrate any significant effect of steroids(类固醇类固醇)when used in the treatment of shock(休克休克). 经过细致的临床研究经过细致的临床研究, Shoemaker 未能够证明未能够证明类固醇对休克有任何显著疗效类固醇对休克有任何显著疗效.6) The evidence of cancer is clear enough, excluding (排除排除 )all possibilities of
42、 doubt.癌症的证据确切癌症的证据确切, 不用怀疑不用怀疑.7) But the wound refused to heal.但是伤口但是伤口并没有愈合并没有愈合.8) The patient denied a family history of his disease. 病人说他的病没有家族史病人说他的病没有家族史.2. 名词引起的否定名词引起的否定常见的有常见的有:absence, freedom ( 没有没有, 消失消失), failure, lack, inability( 无能无能, 无力无力) , ignorance, neglect When penicillin is gi
43、ven far in excess of dosage needed for therapeutic effect, strange to say, freedom from toxic reactions is remarkable.青霉素剂量大大超过所需治疗剂量时青霉素剂量大大超过所需治疗剂量时, 说也奇怪说也奇怪, 毒性反应竟毒性反应竟出人意外的出人意外的没有没有了了. In the absence of adequate proof, we can not come to any conclusion.没有足够的证据没有足够的证据, 我们不能做出任何结论我们不能做出任何结论.3) We
44、 are in complete ignorance of his plans.我们我们完全不知道完全不知道他的计划他的计划.4) Our inability to define chronic bronchitis more precisely on pathologic ground constitutes another cause limiting progress toward better understanding of the disease.我们我们未能未能从病理学的角度对慢性支气管炎更精确地下定义从病理学的角度对慢性支气管炎更精确地下定义, 这这是限制我们在更好地理解此病上
45、获得进展的另一个原因是限制我们在更好地理解此病上获得进展的另一个原因. 3, 形容词引起的否定形容词引起的否定常见的有常见的有: free from( 免于免于), safe from ( 免于免于), far from( 远非远非, 一点也一点也不不), short of, few, little, ignorantYour data seem to indicate that after 40 minutes of ischemia (局部失血局部失血) there is little that can be done by the clinician to reverse the ini
46、tial necrosis( 坏死坏死). 你们的资料似乎说明你们的资料似乎说明, 局部失血局部失血40分钟后临床医生几乎没有什么办法逆转分钟后临床医生几乎没有什么办法逆转早期坏死早期坏死.2) The patient though not entirely free from symptoms is regarded as a chronic carrier.虽然病人并非完全没有症状虽然病人并非完全没有症状, 他依然算是一个慢性带菌者他依然算是一个慢性带菌者.3) No one can be a good physician who has no idea of surgical opera
47、tions, and a surgeon is nothing if ignorant of medicine.缺乏外科手术的观念缺乏外科手术的观念, 不能成为好的内科医生不能成为好的内科医生; 而不懂内科学则根本称不上而不懂内科学则根本称不上外科医生外科医生.4) Etiological(致病的致病的) factors responsible for cancer of the stomach are far from being clear.胃癌的致病因素还远未了解清楚胃癌的致病因素还远未了解清楚.四四. 副词引起的否定副词引起的否定常见的有常见的有:seldom, hardly, rar
48、ely, scarcely, little, vainly, in vain, too-to-The disease is usually of short duration and is rarely serious.此病通常病程短而且不严重此病通常病程短而且不严重.2) The prevention of illness through the conservative(保守保守的的), selective use of drugs and through a better education of physicians as to their indications and limita
49、tions can hardly be overemphasized.通过有节制通过有节制, 有选择地用药有选择地用药,以及教会医生药物的表现和局限性这些措施来以及教会医生药物的表现和局限性这些措施来预防疾病预防疾病, 必须特别予以强调必须特别予以强调. ( 不能翻译成不能翻译成”不能过分强调不能过分强调”)3) Seldom does fever occur without other discomfort, so that the combination of analgesia and antipyresis (解解熱熱 )are often advisable.1)发热而无其他不适是发
50、热而无其他不适是不大有不大有的事的事, 因此因此, 联合镇痛及解热治疗常常是可取的联合镇痛及解热治疗常常是可取的. 五五. 连词引起的否定连词引起的否定常见的有常见的有:unless, until, but that ( 要不是要不是), rather than (而不是而不是, 宁可不宁可不)等等One of the difficulties is that viruses may remain latent(潜伏的潜伏的) in cells for long periods until awakened to activity by accessory(附加附加)factors.困难之一是