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1、精品文档，仅供学习与交流，如有侵权请联系网站删除Halidaychild language. Macrofunctions: ideational, interpersonal, textual.what are major branches of linguistics? what does each study? Phonetics-the study of the phonic medium of language, its concerned with all the sounds that occur in the worlds languages. Phonology-the st
2、udy of sounds systemsthe inventory of distinctive sounds that occur in a language and the patterns into which they fall. Morphology-Its a branch of a grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed. Syntax-its a subfield of linguistics that studies the s
3、entence structure of a language. Semantics-Its simply defined as the study of meaning in abstraction. Pragmatics-the study of meaning in context of words. The study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication.Sociolinguisticsthe study of language with reference to
4、society. Psycholinguistics-the study of language with reference to the working of the mind. Applied linguistics-the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and learning. Chapter2 Phonologythree branches of phonetics: Articulatory describes the way our speech organs wor
5、k to produce the speech sounds and how they differ. Auditory-studies the physical properties of speech sounds, reaches the important conclusion that phonetic identity is only a theoretical ideal. Acoustic-studies the physical properties of speech sounds ,the way sound travel from the speaker to the
6、hearer. Organs of Speech : Pharyngeal cavity 咽腔 Oral cavity 口腔greatest source of modification of air stream found here Nasal cavity 鼻腔 Broad transcription: The transcription of speech sounds with letter symbols only. (leaf /l/)Narrow transcription: The transcription of speech sound with letters symb
7、ols and the diacritics.(dark /l/)Phonetics and Phonology区别: are concerned with the same aspect of language- the speech sounds. Phonetics: it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages; phonetic features they possess; how they can be classified, etc. Phonology: it aims to disc
8、over how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication. rules in Phonology: Sequential rules: Rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language. Assimilation rules: The assimilation rule assimilates one sound
9、to another by copying a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar. Deletion rule: Its a phonological rule which tells us when a sound is to be deleted although its orthographically represented.Suprasegmental超切分特征: The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segm
10、ent are called suprasegmental features. the main suprasegmental features include stress ,intonation and tone. (intonation: when pitch, stress and sound lenth are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation. /tone: Tone are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates of vibra
11、tion of the vocal cords. Tone is a suprasegmental feature.)Chapter3 Morphologyopen class words: new words can be added to these classes regularly. Such as nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs. Such as Beatnik. Closed class words: conjunctions, prepositions, articles and pronouns consist of the gramm
12、atical or functional words. The number of such words is small and stable since few new words are added. Chapter4 Syntaxdetermine a words category: meaning. Word categories often bear some relationship with its meaning. The meaning associated with nouns and verbs can be elaborated in various ways. Th
13、e property or attribute of the entities denoted by nouns can be elaborated by adjectives.(pretty lady, attribute the property “pretty” to the lady.) inflection. Words of different categories take different inflections. Such nouns as boy and desk take the plural affix -s. Verbs such as work and help
14、take past tense affix -ed and progressive affix -ing. distribution. That is what type of elements can co-occur with a certain word. For example, the girl and a card 小结A words distributional facts together with information about its meaning and inflectional capabilities help identify its syntactic ca
15、tegory.phrase包括: head, specifier, complement. The word round which phrase is formed is termed head. The words on the left side of the heads are said to function as specifiers. Specifiers have both special semantic and syntactic roles: Semantically, they help make more precise the meaning of the head
16、. Syntactically, they typically make a phrase boundary. The words on the right side of the heads are complements. Complements are themselves phrases and provide information about entities and locations whose existence is implied by the meaning of the head. They are attached to the right of the head
17、in English.phrase structure rule: The special type of grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements that make up a phrase is called a phrase structure rule.XP rule: In all phrases, the specifier is attached at the top level to the left of the head while the complement is attached
18、to the right. These similarities can be summarized as an XP rule, in which X stands for the head N,V,A or P. (XP- (specifier) X (complement)coordination rule: Some structures are formed by joining two or more elements of the same type with the help of a conjunction such as and or or. Such phenomenon
19、 is known as coordination. Such structure are called coordination structure. ( Four important properties: There is no limit on the number of coordinated categories that can appear prior to the conjunction. A category at any level (a head or an entire XP) can be coordinated. Coordinated categories mu
20、st be of the same type. The category type of the coordinate phrase is identical to the category type of the elements being conjoined.) Coordination Rule: X- X *Con X)deep structure and surface structure: There are two levels of syntactic structure. The first, formed by the XP rule in accordance with
21、 the heads subcategorization properties, is called deep structure (or D-structure). /The second, corresponding to the final syntactic form of the sentence which results from appropriate transformations, is called surface structure (or S-structure).Chapter 5 SemanticsThe naming theory: (Greek scholar
22、 Plato) According to this theory, the linguistic forms or symbols, in other words, the words used in a language are taken to be labels of the objects they stand for, so words are just names or labels for things. The conceptualist view: It holds that there is no direct link between a linguistic form
23、and what it refers to; rather ,in the interpretation of meaning they are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind. Contextualism: (J.R. Firth) people should be studied in terms of situation, use, context elements closely linked with language behaviour. Its based on the presumption that o
24、ne can derive meaning from or reduce meaning to observable contexts. two kinds of context: the situational and the linguistic context. A) the situational context: Every utterance occurs in a particular situation, the main components of which include, the speaker and the hearer, the actions they are
25、performing, the various objects and events existent in the situation.-The seal could not be found. B) the linguistic context: co-text, is concerned with the probability of a words co-occurrence or collocation with another word, which forms part of the “meaning” of the word, and also with the part of
26、 text that precedes and follows a particular utterance.-black coffer& black hair.Sense refers to the inherent meaning of a linguistic form, which is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form, its abstract and de-contextualized. /Reference is what a linguistic form refers to in the re
27、al, physical world, it is a matter of relationship between the form and reality. /关系: Linguistic forms, having the same sense, may have different reference in different situations. Linguistic forms with the same reference may differ in sense.-morning star= evening star. Linguistic forms may have sen
28、se, but have no reference in the real world.-dragon, ghost.Hyponymy: It refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word. the word which is more general in meaning is called superordinate, and the more specific words are called its hyponyms. X entails
29、 Y: entailment: the relationship between two sentences where the truth of one is inferred from the truth of the other. E.g. Cindy killed the dog entails the dog is dead. (X :John married a blond heiress. Y: John married a blond.)componential analysis: an approach to analyze the lexical meaning into
30、a set of meaning components or semantic features. For example, boy may be shown as +human +male -adult. semantic features: The smallest units of meaning in a word, which may be described as a combination of semantic components. For example, woman has the semantic features +human -male +adult. /Advan
31、tages: by specifying the semantic features of certain word, it will be possible to show how these words are related in meaning.Predication Analysis:The meaning of a sentence is not the sum total of the meanings of all its components, that is, the meaning of a sentence is not to be worked out by addi
32、ng up all the meanings of its constituent words. E.g: The dog bit the man. & The man bit the dog.There are two aspects to sentence meaning: grammatical meaning and semantic meaning. Grammaticality: grammatical (well-formedness); Semantically meaningful: selectional restrictions. (selectional restric
33、tion: Whether a sentence is semantically meaningful is governed by the rules called selectional restrictions, i.e. constraints on what lexical items can go with what others.)(consist of predicate and argument)Chapter 6 pragmaticsContext(John Firth): The notion of context is essential to the pragmati
34、c study of language, its generally considered as constituted by the knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer. Speech act theory(John Austin)Searles Classification of Speech Acts: 1 representatives: Stating or describing, saying what the speaker believes to be true. 2 directives: Trying to get
35、the hearer to do something. 3 commisives: Committing the speaker himself to some future course of action. 4 expressives: Expressing feelings or attitude towards an existing state. 5 declaration: Bring about immediate changes by saying something. /Conclusion: All the acts that belong to the same cate
36、gory share the same purpose but differ in their strength or force.cooperative Principle (CP): Proposed by Paul Grice, the principle that the participants must first of all be willing to cooperate in making conversation, otherwise, it would be impossible to carry on the talk.Historical linguistics: a
37、 branch of linguistics, is mainly concerned with both the description and explanation of language changes that occurred over time.semantic broadening: when the meaning of a word becomes broader, it may include all the meanings it used to mean, and then more. Such as holiday, which originally meant h
38、oly day, but it means any day which we dont have to work.semantic narrowing: semantic change has narrowed the meaning of some words. such as deer(any animala particular kind of animal)semantic shift: a lexical item may undergo a shift in meaning is the third kind of semantic change.sociolinguistics:
39、 is the sub-field of linguistic that studies the relation between language and society, between the uses of language and the social structures in which the users of language live.Inter-relationship between language and society:A) language is used not only to communicate meaning, but also establish a
40、nd maintain social relationships. B) Users of the same language in a sense all speak differently, due to their social backgrounds. C) Language, especially the structure of its lexicon, reflects both the physical and the social environments of a society. E.g. there is only one word in English for sno
41、w, and there are several in Eskimo.D) Language is related to the structure if the society in which it is used, therefore, judgments concerning the correctness and purity of linguistic varieties are social rather than linguistic. E.g. the use of postvocalic r in England and in New York city.speech co
42、mmunity: the social group that is singled out for any special study.speech variety: refers to any distinguishable form of speech used by a speaker or a group of speakers. i.e. regional dialects, sociolects, registersRegister: in a restricted sense, refers to the variety of language related to ones o
43、ccupation. In a broader sense, the type of language which is selected as appropriate to the type of situation is a register. A) Field of discourse- topic: the purpose and subject matter of the communicative behavior.- why/ what-vocabulary, phonological, grammatical featuresB) Tenor of discourse- rol
44、e: participants and in what relationship they stand to each other.- formality/ technicality of the language we use. C) Mode of discourse - means of communication.-how ( speaking or writing).degree of formality: intimate; casual; consultative; formal; frozenculture: A）In a broad sense: Culture means
45、the total way of life of a people, including the patterns of belief, customs, objects, institutions, techniques, and language that characterizes the life of the human community. B) In a narrow sense: Culture may refer to a local or specific practice, beliefs or customs, which can be mostly found in
46、folk culture, enterprise culture or food culture etc.The relationship between language and culture: language as an integral part of human being permeates his thinking and way of viewing the world. It both expresses and embodies cultural reality. reflects and affects a cultures way of thinking and he
47、lps perpetuate and change the culture and its influence, which also facilitates the development of this language at the same time. language is a part of culture.Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis: A belief that the way people view the world is determined wholly or partly by their structure of their native langu
48、age.-interdependence of language and thought.(there are two interpretations: a strong version and a weak one. The strong version believes that language patterns determine peoples thinking and behavior. The weak one holds that the former influences the later.)Greetings and terms of address: A) People in different countries choose the proper greetings to greet different people they meet on different occasions. B) The terms of address can be different in different countries. C) Chinese people will also extend kinship terms and indicate peoples influ