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1、Part four The paragraph I structure and types of paragraphsII Basic requirements of paragraphs III Common ways of paragraph developments Definition of paragraph A paragraph is a natural component of a complete article. A paragraph is relatively self-independent in structure and idea. So a paragraph
2、is often regarded as a mini-essay.I structure and types of paragraphs A paragraph is generally composed of three parts: Topic sentence -indicating the main idea Supporting sentence - help explaining the main idea Concluding sentence - making a conclusion, and it is often necessary to link with the t
3、opic sentence Structure of a paragraph Topic sentence Supporting sentence Supporting sentence Supporting sentence Supporting sentence Concluding sentence Types of paragraphs Introductory paragraph Body paragraph/ supporting paragraph a:paragraph with a topic sentence b:paragraph without a topic sent
4、ence Conclusive paragraph(not all aritcles have their conclusive para.s, except essays and research papers) Transitional paragraph(It functions transition between two paragraphs.It usually retrospects and summerizes the former para.s and suggests the following ones) Sample 1 para. With a topic sente
5、nce Changes in the prices of goods can cause changes in production and consumption. Production increases when the prices are high. As th prices of goods go up, producers make more goods because because they can make more money when they sell the goods. On the other hand, consumption increases when t
6、he prices are low. As the prices of goods of goods go down, consumers buy more goods because of the low prices.Sample 2 para. without a topic sentence The average population dencity of the world is 47 persons per square mile. Continental dencities wange from no permanent inhabitants in Antarctica to
7、 211 per square mile in Europe. In the western hemisphere, population dencities range from 4 per square mile in Canada to 675 per square mile in Puerto Rico. In Europe the range is from 4 per square mile in Iceland to 831 per square mile the Netherlands. Within countries there are wide variations of
8、 population dencities. For example, in Egypt, the average is 55 persons per square mile, but 1,300 persons inhabit each square mile in settled portions where the land is arable.Sample 3 para. Without a topic sentence The room is located on the fifth floor of the high building. One third of its total
9、 floor is taken up by a double bed. Facing it, in the corner behind the door, stands a cupboard loaded with pots, bowls, dishes,bottles, and flour. A desk completely fills the gap between the bed and the wall with the window. Behind the desk is a chair, the only one in the room; and it almost touche
10、s the boxes and trunks piled against the wall on the opposite side.1 how to write the topic sentence Three points: (1)a topic sentence must be a complete sentence, rather than a sentence fragment. (2)a topic sentence comes in two parts, topic words(indicating object to be discussed) and expression o
11、f thesis(indicating the particular aspect of the thesis). E.g. The Women Movement has had several effects on the English language. (3)a topic sentence can be neither too general nor too specific. Position of the topic sentence: topic sentence can be put in the beginning, in the middle and at the end
12、 of a paragraph. It depends how the paragraph is developed. For example, if a paragraph is developed by deductive method, the topic sentence is often put in the beginning; if a paragraph developed by comparative or contrtastive method, the topic sentence put in the middle; and if by conductive metho
13、d, the topic sentence put in the end.2 How to write supporting sentences Supporting sentences are the extension and specification of the topic sentence. Basic requirements： A: in the meaning, supportive to the theme; specific and typical B: in the form and also in the meaning, coherence and proper o
14、rganization C: necessary quantities of supporting materialsSample 4 a paragraph Another problem facing a number of elderly people is living on a reduced income. Upon retiring, old people may receive a pension from their company of Social Security from the government. The amount of their checks if of
15、ten half the amount the checks they received when they were employed. Suddenly, retirees find that they can no longer continue the life-style that they had become accustomed to, even the life-style was a modest one. Many find, after paying their monthly bills, that there is no money left for a movie
16、 or a dinner out. Of course, sometimes they cant go out because of their health. Maybe they have arthritis or rheumatism and it is painful for them to move around. This can also change their life-style. Some old people, however, discover that the small amount of money they receive will not even cove
17、r their monthly bills. They realize with horror that electricity, a telephone, and nourishing food food are luxuries they can no longer afford. They resort to shivering in the dark, eating cat food in order to make ends meet.3 how to write a concluding sentence 3 rules A: obvious indication of the e
18、nding of the paragraph, some signal words for ending: in summary in a word; in brief; in conclusion; to conclude; in short; in other words B: summerization or emphasis on the main idea to make the idea more impressiveSample concluding sentences in writing tests1. Taking into account of all these fac
19、tors , we may reach the conclusion that _ . 2. All reliable evidences point to one saying , that is _ .3. For the reasons presented above , I strongly commit to the notion that _ . 4. While it is true that _ , I think that _ . 5. Given the factors I have just outlined , I can only say that _ . 6. Th
20、is is not to say that _ . But in terms of _ , it is _ . 7. Therefore , it is easy to draw the conclusion that _ .8. Recognizing the fact that _ should drive us to conclude that _ . 9. To put all into a nutshell , I _ . 10. In a word , I support the statement that it is better to _ because II basic r
21、equirements of para. writing Unity Completeness coherenceUnity All sentences in a para. should serve to support the main idea and irrelevant sentences should be avoided. sample1 Joe and I decided to take the long trip wed always wanted across the country. We were like young kids buying our camper an
22、d stocking it with all the necessities of life. Bella bakes the best rhubarb（食用大黄） pie. We started out in early spring from Minneapolis and headed west across the northern part of the country. We both enjoyed those people we met at the trailer park. Joe received a watch at his retirement dinner. To
23、our surprise, we found that we liked the warm southern regions very much, and so we decided to stay here in New Mexico.Sample 2 My name is Roseanna, and I like to keep physically fit. I used to weigh two hundred pounds, but I joined the YMCA for an exercise class and diet program. In one year I lost
24、 eighty pounds. I feel much better and never want to have that much weight on my five-feet frame again. I bought two new suitcases last week. Everyday I practice jogging three miles, swimming fifteen laps, lifting twenty-pound weights and playing tennis for one hour. My mother was a premature pleten
25、ess Completeness means a clear and sufficient treatment of the main idea of the paragraph. Sample 1: Physical work can be a useful form of therapy for a mind in turmoil. Work concentrates your thoughts on a concrete task. Besides, it is more useful to work - you produce something rather than more an
26、xiety or depression. No clear answer is given to how physical work is a useful form of therapy for a mind in turmoil.Sample 1 It is not always true that a good picture is worth a thousand words. Often writing is much clearer than a picture. It is sometimes difficult to figure out what a picture mean
27、s, but a careful writer can almost always explain it. 段首句所表达的主题思想是一种看法，必须有具体事例加以验证。上述两个推展句只是在文字上对 主题作些解释，整个段落内容空洞，简而不明。如果用一两个具体的例子的话，就可以把主题解释清楚 了 Improved It is not always true that a picture is worth a thousand words. Sometimes, pictures are pretty useless things. If you cant swim and fall in the r
28、iver and start gulping water, will you be better off to hold up a picture of yourself drowning, or start screaming Help? The idea becomes more persuasive and convincing when supported by concrete examples. coherence Two sides: 1)coherence in thoughts(logical relation in idea ) 2)coherence in form(us
29、e of necessary transitional words or phrases)1） coherence in thoughts common logical organizations of thoughts: A chronological arrangement B. spatial arrangement C. arrangement of importance D. general-to-specific arrangement E. specific-to-general arrangement A chronological arrangement We had a n
30、umber of close calls that day. When we rose, it was obviously late and we had to hurry so as not to miss breakfast; we knew the dining room staff was strict about closing at nine oclock. Then, when we had been driving in the desert for nearly two hours - it must have been close to noon - the heat ne
31、arly hid us in; the radiator boiled over and we had to use most of our drinking water to cool it down. By the time we reached the mountain, it was four oclock and we were exhausted. Here, judgement ran out of us and we started the tough climb to the summit, not realizing that darkness came suddenly
32、in the desert. Sure enough, by six we were struggling and Andrew very nearly went down a steep cliff, dragging Mohammed and me along with him. By nine, when the wind howled across the flat ledge of the summit, we knew as we shivered together for warmth that it had not been our lucky day. Signal word
33、s for time rose“,not to miss breakfast, closing at nine oclock)，then close to noon，andBy nine-“.B. spatial arrangement From a distance, it looked like a skinny tube, but as we got closer, we could see it flesh out before our eyes. It was tubular, all right, but fatter than we could see from far away
34、. Furthermore, we were also astonished to notice that the building was really in two parts: a pagoda sitting on top of a tubular one-story structure. Standing ten feet away, we could marvel at how much of the pagoda was made up of glass windows. Almost everything under the wonderful Chinese roof was
35、 made of glass, unlike the tube that it was sitting on, which only had four. Inside, the tube was gloomy, because of the lack of light. Then a steep, narrow staircase took us up inside the pagoda and the light changed dramatically. All those windows let in a flood of sunshine and we could see out fo
36、r miles across the flat land. Signal words for space,from a distance“, get closer， ten feet away，lastly inside the pagoda“ C. arrangement of importance If you work as a soda jerker, you will, of course, not need much skill in expressing yourself to be effective. If you work on a machine, your abilit
37、y to express yourself will be of little importance. But as soon as you move one step up from the bottom, your effectiveness depends on your ability to reach others through the spoken or the written word. And the further away your job is from manual work, the larger the organization of which you are
38、an employee, the more important it will be that you know how to convey your thoughts in writing or speaking. In the very large business organization, whether it is the government, the large corporation, or the Army, this ability to express oneself is perhaps the most important of all the skills a ma
39、n can possess. 这一段谈的是表达能力，它的重要性与职业，身份有关，从not need much skill或 of little importance到 more important，最后是 most important。D general-to-specific arrangement）If a reader is lost, it is generally because the writer has not been careful enough to keep him on the path. This carelessness can take any number o
40、f forms. Perhaps a sentence is so excessively cluttered that the reader, hacking his way through the verbiage, simply doesnt know what it means. Perhaps a sentence has been so shoddily constructed that the reader could read it in any of several ways. Perhaps the writer has switched tenses, or has sw
41、itched pronouns in mid-sentence, so the reader loses track of when the action took place or who is talking. Perhaps sentence B is not logical sequel to sentence A - the writer, in whose head the connection is clear, has not bothered to provide the missing link. Perhaps the writer has used an importa
42、nt word incorrectly by not taking the trouble to look it up. He may think that sanguine and sanguinary mean the same thing, but the difference is a bloody big one. The reader can only infer what the writer is trying to imply.这一段谈的是a writers carelessness，先给出一个general statement作为主题句，然后通 过5个 perhaps加以例
43、证。E. specific-to-general arrangement I do not understand why people confuse my Siamese cat, Prissy, with the one I had several years ago, Henry. The two cats are only alike in breed. Prissy, a quiet, feminine feline, loves me dearly but not possessively. She likes to keep her distance from people, e
44、xert her independence and is never so rude as to beg, lick, or sniff unceremoniously. Her usual posture is sitting upright, eyes closed, perfectly still. Prissy is a very proper cat. Henry, on the other hand, loved me dearly but possessively. He was my shadow from morning till night. He expected me
45、to constantly entertain him. Henry never cared who saw him do anything, whether it was decorous or not, and he usually offended my friends in some way. The cat made himself quite comfortable, on the top of the television, across strangers feet or laps, in beds, drawers, sacks, closets, or nooks. The
46、 difference between them is imperceptible to strangers. 本段的主题句是段首句，它仅提出一个问题：为什么两只猫会被搞混。然后对两者进行比较，末句 才下结论。2） coherence in form The logic of article is often realized with the help of transitional words： Walters goal in life was to become a successful surgeon. First, though, he had to get through high
47、 school, so he concentrated all his efforts on his studies - in particular, biology, chemistry, and math. Because he worked constantly on these subjects, Walter became proficient in them; however, Walter forgot that he needed to master other subjects besides those he had chosen. As a result, during
48、his junior year of high school, Walter failed both English and Latin. Consequently, he had to repeat these subjects and he was almost unable to graduate on schedule. Finally, on June 6, Walter achieved the first step toward realizing his goal.Sample analysis 本文中起承上启下的词语有两种，一种是转换词语(transitional words
49、 or phrases)，另一种 是起转换作用的其他连接手段(linking devices)。前者依次有：first, though, so, in particular, and, because, however, besides, as a result, bothand, consequently, and, finally.后 者依次是：he, he, his, his, he, these, them, he, those, his, he, these, his. 本段共有词汇 105个，所使用的转换词语及其他连接用语共26个词，约占该段总词汇量的四分之一。由此可见，掌 握好t
50、ransitions对行文的流畅(smoothness)很有裨益。Sample Speaking and writing are different in many ways. Speech depends on sounds. Writing uses written symbols. Speech developed about 500 000 years ago. Written language is a recent development. It was invented only about six thousand years ago. Speech is usually in